Figure 11-01 At least one person on board other than the skipper should be fully capable of sending a distress message, recovering a person who falls overboard, or returning the boat to port should the skipper become incapacitated.
Duties & Responsibilities of the Skipper • Basic Operating Procedures Safety Organizations • Construction for Safety • Engines & Fuel Systems Electrical Systems • Lightning Protection • Equipment for Safety Maintenance for Safety • Safety in the Water • First Aid Afloat
Although boating is not an inherently unsafe activity, there are many actions that can make it safer and more carefree without spoiling its enjoyment. Good seamanship begins with knowledge and use of safe practices in all aspects of boating. For the skipper, this includes knowing his duties and responsibilities, as well as having an understanding of the construction of boats, their equipment, operation, and maintenance. While not allowing it to detract from his enjoyment of boating, the wise operator practices safety at all times while afloat and studies it frequently ashore. He recognizes the importance of safety, and it is always in the back of his mind. He views safety not as an arbitrary set of rules, but as the practical application of special knowledge and common sense.
Most boating accidents and difficulties arise from ignorance and could have been avoided. A person does not knowingly put his life, the lives of others, and the safety of valuable property in jeopardy, but he may do so through lack of knowledge.
DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE SKIPPER
As the skipper you are responsible for the safety of your boat and the people on board. You are also responsible for the safety of nearby craft and the people on them, for swimmers and water-skiers in your vicinity, and anyone else who might be affected by your boat’s course or wake. This applies to all sizes of boats on all waters and at all times. One of the challenges of boating is accepting this responsibility without letting it detract from your enjoyment of boating.
Leadership
Leadership and discipline are subjects rarely considered by recreational boaters, but they are valuable assets, particularly should an emergency occur.
Discipline means prompt and cheerful obedience to laws and regulations designed primarily for safety. It also means a square deal to shipmates; the skipper who expects discipline of his crew must likewise discipline himself.
Discipline does not mean a long string of commands with a crew constantly scurrying about the deck. There can be discipline on board the smallest craft without there being any apparent show of it. Real discipline is a function of leadership, and leadership can be exercised in casual clothing on any boat. If you establish your authority as the leader and delegate with tact, each outing on your boat can be both fun and safe.
Leadership is based on three things: (1) each skipper must know himself, his abilities, and his limitations; (2) he must know his job, know it so well that he doesn’t have to think about the details of doing it; (3) he must know his crew and his boat and what he can reasonably expect of them in an emergency.
Foresight
Next to leadership comes forehandedness or foresightedness. A first-class skipper doesn’t wait for an emergency to arise; he has already formulated solutions to any emergency he may face. “Plan ahead” is one of the best pieces of advice you can be given in boating.
Even the most experienced skipper will admit that he has at times been fooled by unexpected effects of wind or current or by engine failure. Dangerous situations can develop with great suddenness—so even when all looks well, watch out! You should have an answer to every threat and a plan to take you out of every danger.
Vigilance
Next in importance is vigilance. As skipper, you must be constantly alert to everything you can see and hear, outside and inside the boat. And your vigilance must extend beyond this to foreseeing situations as well. An aircraft pilot’s rule that he must be able to get into alternate fields as well as the airport of his destination holds comparable meaning for the boat skipper, too.
You must be able to concentrate—distractions such as loud music or rowdy passengers must not be allowed to divert your attention from your important tasks. Maintain a safety consciousness at all times.
Common Sense
One more checkpoint: common sense. The successful skipper has a sense of proportion and of the fitness of things. We can all recall cases where through lack of common sense, we did things that later looked rather ridiculous. Use your head!
Check of Equipment
Before you get any boat underway, check to see if it is really ready to go. Not only should all equipment required by law (Chapters 2 and 3) be on board and in proper condition for use, but all navigational and other equipment should be at hand. Check water and fuel tanks, inspect ground tackle, check stores, and complete all those other small jobs that can be done easily at the mooring or safe in a slip, but not underway or in an emergency.
Prepare a “predeparture checklist” and keep it updated. Don’t trust to memory or routine to ensure that everything necessary is on board—have a list and use it.
Physical Condition of the Skipper
Also relevant to a boat’s safe operation is the physical condition of its skipper. The constant vigilance that is necessary requires his complete possession of his faculties and a sense of physical well-being. The skipper’s readiness and ability to deal effectively with sudden danger and emergencies depends on his being in good physical and mental condition.
Although partaking of alcoholic beverages is commonly a part of boating activities, the prudent skipper abstains while underway or when getting underway is anticipated in the next few hours. Alcohol adversely affects memory, balance, night vision, and muscular coordination; tests have shown that effects of sun and wind encountered in boating tend to aggravate these effects. Think before you drink—especially when boating.
Avoiding Risk
Do not permit any of your crew or guests to take needless risks. Anyone doing a job that involves danger of being swept overboard must wear a life jacket and be securely tethered to the boat.
Carefully observe the current weather and check the forecast before getting underway. If the weather doesn’t look good, stay in port until conditions improve. A day on the water is not worth the risk of your boat or a life.
Acting Moderately
A major part of common sense is acting moderately. Make all changes of course and speed with moderation. Don’t accelerate from a stop or slow speed so abruptly as to possibly cause other persons on board discomfort or injury. Full-throttle starts are unnecessary, except perhaps for getting a water-skier up and going. Likewise, don’t make sudden and abrupt changes in heading unless necessary.
If appropriate, as it will be in many cases, make an announcement or warning of what you are about to do. A simple “Here we go” or “Hold tight” will do much to avoid a preventable accident.
Maintaining a Lookout
A small craft cannot readily use the lookout routine of a large vessel, but the vigilance and caution of that routine should be acknowledged. Having a lookout is not only a requirement of the Navigation Rules, it is good common sense. As skipper, make it a matter of pride to always be first to spot, analyze, and react effectively to any threatening event. On the water, a dangerous situation can develop with amazing speed; you should try to be “one step ahead” of any developing hazard.
Specific Responsibilities
The responsibilities of the skipper or of the individual on watch are as follows:
• Safe navigation of the boat.
• Safe and efficient handling of the boat in the presence of other boats.
• Safety of personnel and material on board.
• Rendering assistance to all in danger or distress.
• Smart handling and smart appearance of the boat.
• Comfort and contentment on board.
• A good log.
The Crew
Recreational boating is usually a family affair—indeed, one of its most pleasing aspects is that essentially the whole family can share in activities.
One aspect of boating that should not be overlooked is the training of the crew. No boat of any appreciable size should depart its slip or mooring for an afternoon’s run or a cruise measured in days without an adequately trained crew, especially an alternate for the skipper. At least one other person should be fully competent to take the helm under all normal conditions of wind and waves, and really should be able to do so under adverse weather conditions. He, she, or they should be capable of bringing the boat alongside a pier and of anchoring it. A sudden incapacitating illness or accident to the skipper may thrust heavy responsibilities upon the alternate without warning. If that person has been trained ahead of time, the emergency will be significantly less drastic and much more easily handled.
Training the Crew
A training program need be neither onerous nor unpleasant; in fact, it need not even be apparent to the “students”! It should, however, be planned and carried out on a formal basis so that the skipper can be sure that everyone knows what he has to know. The secret to a successful family crew-training program is to make it fun and not let it take the pleasure out of boating.
Figure 11-02 It is not enough that approved-type fire extinguishers be on board at appropriate locations; before getting underway, every member of the crew should be trained in how they are used.
With just a little imagination, a man-overboard drill can be made into a game without losing one bit of its effectiveness. With patience and adequate opportunities for practice, the mate and older children can be developed into skillful helmsmen. Every member of the crew should know where the fire extinguishers are and should have had actual experience in using them; see Figure 11-02. It is well worth the small price of recharging one or two extinguishers to gain the experience of putting out a fire with one. (By the way, have you ever actually put out a fire with an extinguisher of the type now on your boat?) This practice should not, of course, be carried out on the boat, but it is easily done ashore.
The mate, at least, and preferably several others of the crew, should know how to turn the radio on, select and change channels, and how to send a call for emergency assistance, a Mayday call.
Instruction Plus Practice
A proper training program consists of instruction plus practice. First, learn for yourself what should be done and how, and then pass this information on to your crew. For routine matters such as boat handling, give each crewmember the chance to become proficient—it may be quicker and easier on your nerves always to bring the boat alongside a pier yourself, but you should have the patience to let others learn how by doing. For emergency procedures, have both planned and unannounced drills.
All aboard, including you, should be trained to do the right thing instinctively and quickly in a real emergency. A useful resource is the Coast Guard's free safe-boating app for mobile devices, which can be downloaded at www.uscg.mil/mobile/.
Guests on Board
When you have guests on board, they may or may not become part of the crew. If qualified, give them some clearly defined job(s) to do—and be sure to tell the regular crewmembers who normally perform those duties to supervise or stand aside as appropriate.
If your guests have had little or no boating experience, take them on a tour of the boat. Without overdoing it and frightening them, point out possible dangers such as cleats on the deck that might be a cause of tripping, the hazards of riding on the bow, the boom of a sailboat—you know the possibilities on your boat, point them out to your guests. Show them the location of PFDs, and how to put them on; show them the location of the fire extinguishers, and how to operate them. Tell them what they can do to help with the operation of the boat, and even more importantly, what they should not attempt to do.
Important Actions Underway
Here is a short checklist of things to do and not do:
• Check and plot the boat’s position frequently when in sight of land or aids to navigation; be certain of the identification of the objects used to fix position.
• Keep a close eye on the depth sounder. If your boat has one, set the minimum depth alarm to a suitable depth. Don’t be caught by surprise by shallow water.
• Note the effect of wind and current on the boat, especially in close waters or when maneuvering near other boats.
• Do not follow other boats blindly; steer a safe course, and do not assume that another craft is on a safe course.
• When in doubt about your position, slow down; do not wait until the last minute.
• Remember that the other skipper may not see you, and always be alert to take immediate steps to prevent a collision.
BASIC OPERATING PROCEDURES
There are a number of basic operating procedures that are done repeatedly in everyday boating. After doing them routinely time after time, there is a tendency to do them semiautomatically, perhaps cutting corners and slighting some steps—that is simply human nature. Periodically, take time to stop and think; refresh your mind and perform each step properly one by one. Being fully safe requires constant attention to detail.
Fueling
Fueling a boat properly is an essential element of good seamanship. Before starting out make sure that you have enough fuel on board, and if any is needed, put it in safely. Certain precautions must be carefully and completely observed every time that a boat is fueled with gasoline. (Diesel fuel is nonexplosive, but it will burn; when putting diesel in your boat’s tanks, use all appropriate precautions.)
Before Fueling
1. Make sure your boat is properly secured to the fueling pier. Fuel before dark if possible.
2. Stop engines, motors, fans, and other devices that could produce a spark. Turn off the master switch for the batteries if the electrical system has one. Put out all galley fires and open flames.
3. Close all ports, windows, doors, and hatches so that fumes cannot blow aboard and below.
4. Disembark all passengers and any crewmembers not needed for the fueling operation.
5. Prohibit all smoking on board and nearby.
6. Have an approved, well-maintained fire extinguisher close at hand.
7. Measure the fuel in the tanks and do not plan to put in more than the tank will hold; allow for expansion.
While Fueling
8. Keep nozzle or can spout in contact with the opening to guard against static sparks.
9. Do not spill any fuel, especially gasoline.
10. Do not overfill. Filling a tank until fuel flows from the vents is dangerous.
11. For boats with outboard motors, remove any portable tanks from the boat and fill on shore.
After Fueling
12. Close fill openings.
13. Wipe up any spilled fuel; dispose of wipe-up rags on shore.
14. Open all ports, windows, doors, and hatches; turn on bilge blower. Ventilate boat at least four minutes.
15. Sniff low down in tank and engine compartments. If odor of gasoline is present, do not start engine; continue ventilation actions until odor can no longer be detected. Check for any drips and liquid fuel.
16. Be prepared to cast off lines as soon as engine starts; get clear of the fueling station promptly.
Loading
Overloading is a major cause of accidents and deaths in all types of smaller boats and dinghies, and also has significance for medium-size boats; see Figure 11-03. Overloading is particularly hazardous because people do not fear it as they do fires and explosions. Many a skipper, cautious in his handling of gasoline and other safety matters, will unthinkingly load his craft far beyond safe limits. The number of seats in a boat is not an indication of the number of persons it can carry safely.
Figure 11-03 Overloading is a major cause of boating accidents and can worsen the outcome of any mishap while underway. Be sure to check your craft’s capacity plate before loading.
Determining Capacity
“Loading” and “capacity” are terms primarily related to the weight of persons, fuel, and gear that can be safely carried. The safe load of a boat in persons depends on many of its characteristics, among them hull volume and dimensions; what it is made of; for outboards, whether there is an effective engine well inboard of the transom notch where the engine is mounted; and how heavy the engine is.
Figure 11-04 The capacity plate on an outboard boat shows the limits of loading in terms of number of persons; the maximum weight of persons; and the total weight of motor, fuel, gear, and persons. A maximum horsepower rating is also shown.
USCG Capacity Plates Boats under 20 feet in length (6.1 m)—inboard, outboard, and sterndrive, other than sailboats and certain special types—must carry a capacity plate specified by U.S. Coast Guard regulations issued under the Federal Boat Safety Act of 1971. These capacities are computed from rather complex formulas. Plates on craft powered by one or more outboard motors show the maximum weight for persons; the maximum number of persons; and the total maximum weight for motor, fuel, gear, and persons. These plates also show the maximum horsepower capacity, or the total horsepower if more than one engine is mounted; see Figure 11-04. Plates for inboard and sterndrive craft show only the maximum passenger capacity in terms of weight and number of persons, and the maximum weight for fuel, gear, and persons; see Figure 11-05. Your boat’s capacity plate must be mounted where you can see it when you are preparing to get underway.
Limits on capacity plates apply for boating in good to moderate weather conditions. In rough waters keep the weight well below the limit. The presence of a capacity plate does not relieve you of responsibility for sound judgment. You should know probable future weather conditions as well as those prevailing when starting out.
Figure 11-05 A capacity plate for a boat with an inboard engine or a sterndrive shows only the maximum allowable number and weight of persons, and the maximum weight for persons and gear. Exceeding these numbers or weights is not a violation of federal law but may be considered in case of accidents.
Safe Loading
Remember that people represent a “live” load; they move about and affect a boat quite differently than static loads like the engine or fuel tank. If your boat’s capacity is fully utilized or the weather gets rough, distribute the load evenly, keep it low, and don’t make abrupt changes in its distribution. Make any shift in human or other weights only after stopping or slowing.
Horsepower Capacity
A second aspect of capacity for smaller craft is the maximum horsepower motor that it can safely carry; this capacity is exceeded perhaps as often as the weight-carrying one.
You need not use the maximum safe horsepower; most boats give satisfactory and more economical service with motors of lesser horsepower. A larger engine does not always mean more speed; it does mean that the increased weight of the engine and of its fuel and accessories will significantly reduce the number of people that can be safely carried.
Boarding a Small Boat
There is a safe way to step aboard a small boat—outboard or dinghy—and an unsafe way; see Figure 11-06. In boarding from a pier or a larger boat, step into the boat as near to the center as possible, keeping body weight low. If you’re boarding from a beach, come in over the bow. Keep lines tight or have someone steady the boat.
Never jump into a boat or step on the gunwale (edge of the hull). If you must take a motor or other gear aboard, place it on the edge of the pier where you can easily reach it from the center of the boat. Better yet, after you are in the boat, have someone on the pier hand it to you.
If stepping into a canoe or light dinghy on a beach, remember that the unsupported parts of a hull out of the water are quite vulnerable. A rock could be driven through the hull as your entire weight is applied on one foot.
The boarding cautions above are primarily focused on a “hard” dinghy. An inflatable, with its buoyancy tubes at each side, is more stable, but care should still be taken.
Figure 11-06 Do not attempt to step aboard a dinghy carrying heavy or bulky items. Instead, hand them across as shown. If alone, line up the items on the pier, step aboard, and then reach over for the gear or packages.
Predeparture Actions
Another measure of good seamanship is the procedure you follow before departure.
If you will be gone overnight or longer, you should repeat many of these steps each day before getting underway.
Final Weather Check
No boat or ship is large enough to justify the skipper’s ignoring forecast weather conditions. You should make a final weather check close to departure time. Know the time of best weather broadcasts, radio and TV (including cable), in your home area (these broadcasts vary widely in their scope and suitability for boating); know the telephone numbers of agencies to call for last-minute information. When away from your home waters, find on arrival at each overnight stop how you can get early-morning forecasts before departure.
The Marine Weather Services Charts published each year by the National Weather Service (see Chapter 24,) give information on major radio and TV weather broadcasts as well as the locations of regional Weather Service broadcast antennas. NWS is also steadily expanding the number of VHF-FM radio transmitters that broadcast continuous weather information; also available on the Web at www.nws.noaa.gov/nwr; see also Chapter 24.
Predeparture Checklist
Prepare your own predeparture checklist and use it. Review and revise the list if you change boats or boating areas.
The following items apply generally; you may not need them all, and you may add some of your own. Check that:
• All safety equipment is aboard, accessible, and in good working condition, including one Coast Guard–approved PFD for each person.
• The bilge has no fuel fumes and little or no water. Ventilate or pump out as necessary. (On a gasoline-powered inboard-engine craft, operate the blower for at least four minutes, then sniff the bilge for any fumes.)
• All navigation lights operate satisfactorily (even if you do not intend to be out after sunset); horn works properly.
• All loose gear is stowed securely. Dock lines and fenders should be stowed immediately after getting underway.
• Engine and transmission oil levels are adequate, and coolant level is sufficient in closed cooling systems. After starting engines, check overboard flow of cooling water.
• Fuel tanks are as full as you need and compartments have been properly ventilated; see Figure 11-07. Know your tank capacity and fuel consumption at various rpms, and the cruising radius this gives. Make sure there is enough fuel aboard for your anticipated cruising, plus an adequate reserve if you must change your plans for weather or other reasons. For a day’s outing and return home, follow the “rule of thirds”—one third for the trip outbound, one third for the return run, and one third for reserve.
• All guests have been properly instructed in safety and operational matters—both dos and don’ts.
• There is at least one other person on board capable of taking over for you if you are disabled.
Figure 11-07 A warning label is required near an ignition switch on a boat in order to comply with the powered ventilation requirements of the Coast Guard. Help prevent disaster by posting a warning label in any unventilated compartment into which a crewmember might place gasoline or a cleaning solvent container.
Float Plan
Before departing, tell a responsible relative or friend where you intend to cruise and when you expect to make port again; make sure he or she has a good description of the boat. (Do not attempt to file this “Float Plan” with the U.S. Coast Guard; they do not have the manpower to keep track of boats as the FAA monitors aircraft flights.) After departure, tell that person of any changes in your cruise plans, so he can tell the Coast Guard where to search and what type of boat to look for if you are overdue. And be sure to check in with him or her when you return to prevent false alarms about your safety.
Forms are not required for float plans, but they do make it easier to record the necessary information and ensure against omissions; see sidebar above. The Coast Guard offers a useful float plan form that can be accessed from the Coast Guard website at www.uscgboating.org; similar formats are in many books and periodicals. Forms are also available from many marine insurance offices.
PREDEPARTURE FLOAT PLAN
1. NAME & PHONE NUMBER OF PERSON FILING THE FLOAT PLAN
2. DESCRIPTION OF BOAT
Name of boat; length; make; type; color of hull, deck, and trim, including any canvas top; any other distinguishing features; registration number.
3. ENGINE TYPE
Number of engines, horsepower, fuel capacity.
4. PLANNED OPERATIONS
Departure point; destination; route; planned date and time of arrival at destination; expected date and time of return.
5. PERSONS ON BOARD
Name of skipper and his boating experience. For all persons: name, age, address, and phone number. Any person with a medical condition or problem.
6. MARINE RADIO
Type and frequencies/channels; EPIRB (type).
7. SAFETY & SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT
Personal flotation devices, visual distress signals; flashlight; anchor and line; food and water; paddles; dinghy or life raft; other safety or emergency equipment.
8. OTHER PERTINENT INFORMATION
If applicable: vehicle information—color, make, type, license tag number, where parked. If applicable: trailer—type, where parked. Any other useful information.
9. SUGGESTED DATE & TIME FOR HOLDER OF FLOAT PLAN TO CALL COAST GUARD OR LOCAL AUTHORITY
List all appropriate telephone numbers.
SAFETY ORGANIZATIONS
There are many public and private organizations devoted to the promotion of boating safety. Several teach boating safety; others are concerned with the material and operational aspects of boats and boating.
Educational Organizations
United States Power Squadrons The USPS is a volunteer organization of more than 35,000 members organized into over 350 local squadrons. These units, located throughout the United States and in some overseas areas, offer educational programs of basic safety and piloting to the public, and more advanced courses to members; see Figure 11-08.
Figure 11-08 The United States Power Squadrons is an organization of volunteers dedicated to making boating safer through education. Boats skippered by a USPS member are usually identified by the distinctive flag with blue-and-white vertical stripes, shown here.
It is a nonprofit, self-sustaining private membership organization dedicated to teaching better and safer boating. Despite the word “Power” in its name, the USPS today includes many sailboat skippers in its ranks. USPS also has several public service programs, including the reporting of chart corrections and the Vessel Safety Check (VSC) program. The boats of members can be identified by the USPS Ensign with its blue-and-white vertical stripes.
Many thousands of boaters and families receive free instruction in the USPS Boating Course every year. For information on local classes, go to www.usps.org.
The Canadian Power and Sail Squadrons are organized similarly to the USPS, with modifications to fit Canada’s laws and customs.
United States Coast Guard Auxiliary The USCGAux is a voluntary civilian organization of owners of boats, private airplanes, and shore radio stations; it is a nonmilitary group, although administered by the U.S. Coast Guard. It promotes safety in operation of small boats through education, boat safety checks, and operational activities.
The Auxiliary carries on a program of public boating courses free of charge except for the cost of materials. Members take specialty courses to increase their knowledge and abilities. The Auxiliary's 30,000 members are organized into 1,000 flotillas around the country.
Vessel Safety Check (formerly known as Courtesy Marine Examination) is a well-known program of both the Coast Guard Auxiliary and the United States Power Squadrons. Specially trained USCGAux and USPS members conduct annual checks on boats, but only with the consent of the owner; see Figure 11-09. Boats that meet a strict set of requirements are awarded a distinguishing decal. If a boat fails to qualify, the owner is urged to remedy any defects and request a reexamination. No report of failure is made to any authority.
Figure 11-09 Boat owners can request the free Vessel Safety Check given by members of the Coast Guard Auxiliary, shown here, or by USPS members. Craft that meet all the requirements are awarded a decal for the current year.
The Auxiliary promotes safety afloat by assisting the Coast Guard in patrolling regattas and racing events. In many areas, the Auxiliary also participates in search-and-rescue for vessels that are disabled, in distress, or have been reported overdue.
Information on public classes of the Auxiliary or membership in the organization may be obtained from a local flotilla or by going to the Auxiliary website, www.cgaux.org, or you can call 800-336-BOAT.
American National Red Cross The Red Cross offers programs of water safety education through its more than 3,000 local chapters in all areas of the United States; see Figure 11-10. The swimming and water safety skills taught by the Red Cross range from beginning through advanced swimmer, survival swimming, and lifesaving.
Red Cross first-aid training is also available to the public through local chapters. A wise skipper would do well to learn the proper action to be taken in common emergencies. Training in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is desirable for all skippers, but it is essential for those cruising offshore; it is now a requirement for USCG licenses.
Textbooks used in Red Cross training programs may be purchased from larger bookstores or through local chapters; all are valuable reference publications. Available texts from the Red Cross include Swimming and Water Safety, Lifesaving and Water Safety, and First Aid; all are reasonably priced.
The Red Cross publishes a variety of safety pamphlets and posters and produces informational and instructional films. These are available free to interested groups. Information on classes, publications, films, and other safety activities can be obtained from local chapters. and at www.redcross.org.
Figure 11-10 Local chapters of the American Red Cross teach swimming, life saving, and other water safety subjects, including first aid and CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation), to persons of all ages. Every person who goes boating should try to become an adequate swimmer.
Boat & Equipment Organizations
In addition to the national volunteer groups working toward greater safety afloat through education, there are several organizations related to the boating industry that promote safety through standards for boats and equipment, including installation and use.
Figure 11-11 The American Boat & Yacht Council, Inc., is a nonprofit public-service organization founded to increase safety in the design, construction, equipping, and maintenance of small craft. The volumes of its “Safety Standards” are worthwhile reading for skippers of all boats.
American Boat & Yacht Council, Inc. The ABYC is a nonprofit public-service organization founded in 1954 to “improve and promote the design, construction, equipage, and maintenance of small craft with reference to safety.” Membership is open to companies and individuals.
The American Boat & Yacht Council develops and publishes “Safety Standards,” which are recommended specifications and practices for making small craft as free from dangerous defect or deficiency as possible; see Figure 11-11. They also offer the most extensive technical education and technician certification program in the marine industry. Standards are stated in terms of desired performance. They are prepared by Project Technical Committees formed as broadly based groups of recognized authorities. All safety standards and technical reports are advisory; ABYC has no powers of enforcement.
The ABYC does not “approve” boats, equipment, materials, or services. Some standards refer to standards of other organizations or to testing laboratories. Standards are reviewed at least every five years. New and revised standards are sent out as supplements to the complete compilation published in loose-leaf form. Included are standards for such diverse matters as “good visibility from the helm position,” “lifesaving equipment,” “gasoline fuel systems,” “AC electrical systems on boats,” “lightning protection,” “hydraulic systems,” and “propulsion control systems.” The full set of 68 recommended standards is published as Standards and Technical Information Reports for Small Craft, available from the ABYC at 613 Third Street, Suite 10, Annapolis, MD 21403; 410-990-4460; www.abycinc.org. Although expensive, this is a good book to have on hand for reference.
Design, safety, and construction standards for boats as well as motors are also prepared by Underwriters Laboratory (UL), the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS), Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), Lloyds of London, North German Lloyds, International Organization of Standards (ISO), and Det Norske Veritas. Boats manufactured in any country may be built to conform to the standards set by any of these organizations.
The Marine Department of Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. Underwriters Laboratories is a not-for-profit corporation that dates from 1894; it has marine testing facilities in North Carolina, as well as other locations—UL Laboratory and Testing Facility, 12 Laboratory Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-3995; 919-549-1400; www.ul.com. It serves the industry and the boating public by conducting safety investigations and tests of marine products, by developing Marine Safety Standards, and by preparing Marine Supplements to UL Electrical Safety Standards.
The principal activity of the Marine Department is testing boating equipment for safety, a process that begins with manufacturers voluntarily submitting product samples. These are often tested for compliance with appropriate safety requirements, and evaluated for overall design and construction in relation to their use. After a product has successfully completed the evaluation and complied with all of the UL requirements, the Marine Department conducts a follow-up investigation at the factory to confirm that the manufacturer’s production controls comply with UL requirements.
A device that passes all its tests is “listed” by Underwriters Labs and may carry both on the product and in its advertising the UL “Listing Mark,” consisting of the Laboratory’s name or symbol, the product name, a control number, and the word “listed”; see Figure 11-12. The name of the device is included, with the name of the manufacturer, in the annual UL Marine Product Directory and in the online certification database on the UL website. UL does not approve or disapprove anything. Listing is an expression of UL’s good-faith opinion, based on tests, that the item meets minimum applicable safety standards. It is not a warranty of quality or performance, nor are all listed products of the same category necessarily equivalent in quality, performance, or merit.
Only products commercially available are eligible for listing. New products may be submitted in their model stage for evaluation, but no final listing action is taken until production units are submitted.
Figure 11-12 Boating products that have passed a safety evaluation by the Marine Department of Underwriters Laboratories are “listed.” The UL label, shown above, can be used in advertising the items and may be found on them in the form of stickers or tags.
The presence of a UL or UL-Marine label on any device means that a production sample has been successfully evaluated relative to safety requirements, and nothing more. The label may, however, be the basis on which “authorities having jurisdiction” grant approval for use. Such authorities include individuals making judgments for their own purposes, industry people making judgments for components of original equipment installations, marine surveyors for insurance purposes, and administrators of regulations making judgments required by law.
National Fire Protection Association This organization’s activities extend far beyond boating and marine interests to include all aspects of the science and methods of fire protection. NFPA issues codes, standards, and recommended practices for minimizing losses of life and property by fire.
NFPA does not approve, inspect, or certify any installations, procedures, equipment, or materials, and it does not approve or evaluate testing laboratories. It does prepare, by coordinated action of committees of experts, codes and standards for the guidance of all persons in the matter of fire protection. Frequently, NFPA codes and standards are written into law or regulations by various government units.
Of interest to boaters is NFPA’s booklet Fire Protection Standard No. 302 for Pleasure and Commercial Motor Craft; see Figure 11-13. It is available from the National Fire Protection Association, 1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02169-7471; 617-770-3000; www.nfpa.org.
United States Sailing Association (US SAILING) This organization is the national governing body for the sport of sailing, whose mission is to encourage participation and excellence in sailing and racing in the United States. There is a strong emphasis on all safety aspects. Contact US SAILING at P.O. Box 1260, 15 Maritime Drive, Portsmouth, RI 02871-0907. www.ussailing.org.
Figure 11-13 Fire Protection Standard for Pleasure and Commercial Motor Craft, NFPA No. 302, is a safety bulletin issued by the National Fire Prevention Association. It will provide useful information for any boat owner.
CONSTRUCTION FOR SAFETY
Safety afloat starts with the design and construction of the boat itself. The typical skipper most likely did not build his own boat, but he should be able to recognize proper design features and sound construction characteristics. A boater should be reasonably familiar with safe and unsafe aspects of boat construction—the points that should be checked in determining whether or not a particular boat, new or used, should be bought—and thus avoid those that fail to measure up to desirable standards.
A boater thinking of buying a used boat should seriously consider the services of a qualified MARINE SURVEYOR who is an expert in determining the condition of the hull, engine, and equipment. The surveyor may well discover defects that the would-be buyer overlooked, and his impartial survey is sound protection for a purchaser; the modest cost is well justified. Surveys are often required before a boat buyer can get a loan or insurance, particularly on older boats.
Hull Construction
Modern boats built by reputable manufacturers are basically seaworthy if they are honestly constructed to proven designs. This points out the proper course in selection of a good, sound boat. If you have no experience in selecting a boat, get the guidance of someone who is better qualified; be sure to talk to several people to avoid personal biases.
Where possible, two means of exit should be provided from compartments where people may congregate or sleep. Thus in a small boat with only one cabin and cockpit, a forward hatch is a desirable feature.
Construction Materials
For seaworthiness, materials suitable for boat building and high-quality construction are both essential. Fire-retardant materials should be used wherever possible. Boats may be built equally well of wood, fiberglass, steel, or aluminum. Combinations of materials may also be used, such as an aluminum superstructure on a steel hull. Note too that boats can also be built poorly in any of these materials.
Safety on Deck
Figure 11-14 Antislip protection on deck walkways and at boarding areas is a must. Adhesive strips offer another means of preventing falls on decks that otherwise would be slippery, particularly when wet.
A medium-size or large craft may have side decks on which individuals move forward to the bow. It is essential that four safety features be present.
First, these decks must be wide enough for secure footing, even though the space may be measured in inches.
Second, if the deck is made of a material that is slippery when wet (and most are), antislip protection must be provided at critical points. This may consist of a built-in roughness in fiberglass decks, grit added to deck paint, or special nonskid strips attached to the deck with their own adhesive backing. Any place where someone has slipped—or could slip—needs nonskid protection; see Figure 11-14.
Third, there must be enough handholds—places to grab and hold on—that no one is ever beyond a secure grasp when moving forward and aft, or when embarking or debarking. The old saying “one hand for the boat and one for yourself” is an excellent one, even in calm waters; at all times, hold on to something strong enough to bear your weight.
Fourth, no boat large enough for them should be without lifelines or liferails. They are often carried forward and aft to join low metal rails at the bow (pulpit) and stern (pushpit) to enclose the deck completely.
Owners of offshore cruising sailboats would be wise to meet the requirements established by the Offshore Racing Council: There should be lifelines supported on stanchions, effectively continuous around the working deck.
Horizontal rails may be substituted in pulpits. Lifelines should be permanently supported at intervals of no more than 7 feet (2.1 m) and should not pass outboard of supporting stanchions. Pulpits should be permanently installed, and their upper rails should be at at least as high above the working deck as the upper lifelines, which should be 24 inches (61 cm) above the working deck. Lifelines should be stranded stainless-steel wire of no less than 5/32 inch (4 mm) for boats under 43 feet (13.1 m) LOA, or 3/16 inch (5 mm) for larger boats. These requirements are compatible with those of the American Boat & Yacht Council for lifelines and rails on both power- and sailboats.
Just because a boat has lifelines doesn’t mean you can rely on them. The stanchions should be well-made and through-bolted. On fiberglass boats, you must rely on the quality of the deck construction, but check to be sure that each stanchion base bolts through a generous backing block under the deck.
Even if your lines and stanchions pass muster, don’t conclude they are the best point of attachment for the snap of a safety harness in bad weather. A jackline (a dock line or a length of flat webbing stretched between the mooring cleat on the foredeck and a cleat on the stern) has a number of advantages as a point of attachment, as it allows you to move about the deck without having to stop, unsnap, and snap on again as you must do at each stanchion if you rely on the lifelines.
Superstructure & Stability
The belief that a boat can carry weight anywhere as long as it appears to trim right can be dangerous. Addition of more superstructures, such as a flying bridge, is often particularly bad, as is shifting heavy weights such as motors, ballast, tanks, and machinery. Where stability is concerned, no shifts of major weights or changes in design should be considered without advice from a qualified naval architect. Boat owners sometimes ruin boats and reduce their safety factors by deviating from architect’s specifications for weight distribution.
Through-Hull Fittings
Through-hull fittings that are located near or below the waterline should have SEACOCKS installed to permit positive closing. It is desirable to have solid, noncorroding metal pipe extending from the seacock to a level above the waterline, from which point flexible hoses may be run to the pump or other accessory. Where hose is placed over pipe nipples for connections, use two hose clamps, not just one; see Figure 11-15. Through-hull fittings and seacocks that have been safety evaluated and “listed” by the Underwriters Laboratories are available. ABYC Safety Standard H-27 furnishes additional information on these.
Figure 11-15 Every through-hull fitting should have a seacock to shut off water entry should a hose fail on equipment served by that fitting. When the handle is aligned with the barrel, as here, the seacock is open. To close the cock, turn the handle 90 degrees.
ENGINES & FUEL SYSTEMS
Fires and explosions on boats are usually traceable to the engine room or galley, where improper equipment, faulty installation, or careless operation and maintenance are the direct cause. All these causes are under the owner’s control.
Engine Installation
Engines should be suited to the hulls they power. Extremes of either underpowering or overpowering can be dangerous. Original installations and subsequent changes require the advice of a naval architect or someone thoroughly familiar with that phase of boat design.
Amateur conversions of automobile engines for marine use may be a source of trouble because of basic differences between the two types. Lubrication and cooling are the chief problems. Select an accepted type of marine engine or a commercially produced conversion instead.
Drip pans should be installed under the engine. The exterior of a properly operating engine should be totally dry. Any fluid in the pan should be investigated and removed immediately.
Fuel Systems
The primary aspect of fuel system safety is the prevention of fires and explosions. Not to be overlooked, however, are the reliability aspects of the system that will ensure a continuous flow of clean fuel to the engine. The discussion that follows is principally concerned with boats using gasoline engines; exceptions and requirements relating to diesel fuel systems are covered separately.
The Coast Guard has complex technical requirements for fuel systems of all boats having gasoline engines for propulsion or for producing electrical or mechanical power on board. These are requirements for manufacturers of new boats, but they can serve as an excellent guide for boat owners. These standards can be found in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 33: Navigation and Navigable Waters, Chapter 1, Part 183: Boats and Associated Equipment, which can be accessed online via links from www.uscgboating.org.
Fire Prevention
A boat’s entire fuel system must be liquid- and vapor-tight with respect to the hull interior. Gasoline fumes mixed with air are an explosive combination. These fumes, several times heavier than air, settle to the bottom of the bilge. A concentration of gasoline in the air as low as 1.25 percent—a half-teacup, a few ounces of gasoline—can create enough explosive vapor to totally destroy a large boat.
The obvious answer is prevention—make it impossible for gasoline, either in liquid or gaseous form, to get into the bilge in the first place. Then keep the bilge clean and ventilate the engine compartment thoroughly, and there will be nothing that can be ignited.
Leakage of liquid gasoline into the bilge can be prevented by a properly installed fuel system that uses strongly built gasoline tanks, approved tubing for fuel lines, leakproof connections, tight fittings, and lengths of flexible metallic fuel hose to take care of vibration. As discussed earlier, keep gasoline vapors created when the tanks are filled from finding their way down through open hatches and companionways. Finally, do not permit sparks and flames in the engine room.
Carburetors & Air Intakes
Carburetors (on engines that use these rather than fuel injectors) must be equipped with flame arresters for protection against backfire; see Figure 11-16. If not of the downdraft type, they should also have a pan covered with a fine mesh screen attached under the carburetor to collect any drip. Leakage will be sucked back into the engine if a copper tube is run from the bottom of the pan to the intake manifold. Keep carburetor and fuel-injection intake air-flame arresters clean both for safety and best engine operation.
Figure 11-16 A carburetor on a marine gasoline engine (other than outboard motors) must be equipped with a flame arrester. A downdraft carburetor, as shown here, does not require a drip pan, but an updraft model (now rare) requires one.
Gasoline Fuel Tanks & Gauges
Permanent gasoline fuel tanks must be installed securely to prevent any motion in a seaway. Using portable tanks belowdecks is not good practice.
Gasoline fuel tanks must be constructed of a metal that is compatible with both the fuel and a normal marine environment. Copper, copper alloys of certain specific composition, hot-dipped galvanized sheet steel, and aluminum are all used for gasoline tanks. In each case, construction, installation, and inspections should be in accordance with standards of the American Boat & Yacht Council.
Monel (a nickel-copper alloy) is a superb tank material but too expensive for ordinary use. The ABYC has approved 316L and 317L stainless steel for diesel tanks but not for gasoline tanks of 20 gallons or more. Small polyethylene tanks are readily available in a variety of shapes and provide excellent service. Fiberglass is attacked by the ethanol that is now in gasoline; until that is worked out, fiberglass tanks should be avoided. Terneplate steel (sheet steel coated with a lead-tin alloy), once commonly used for fuel tanks, should no longer be used.
Gasoline tanks must not be integral with the hull. The shape of the tank should be such that there are no exterior pockets that would trap moisture after the tank is in its installed position. Tank bottoms must not have sumps or pockets in which water could accumulate.
Internal stiffeners and baffle plates are used to provide necessary rigidity and resistance to surging of liquid in the tanks. Baffles must meet certain specified design criteria to prevent formation of liquid pockets in the bottom of tanks and vapor pockets in the tops.
There should be no drains or outlets for drawing off fuel from the tank, nor outlets or fittings of any type in the bottom, sides, or ends of tanks. Fuel lines to the engine should enter the tank at its top and internally extend nearly to the bottom.
A fuel-level indicator, if used, should be of an approved type.
Fuel Filler Pipes & Vents
One of the most essential requirements in the proper installation of a fuel system is that there be a completely tight connection between the gasoline tank and the filling plate on deck. The fuel fill must be located so any spillage will go overboard, not inside the hull, and tight pipe connections between deck plate and tank will prevent leakage or spillage below. Fill pipes, at least 1½-inch (3.8 cm) inside diameter, should run down inside the tank nearly to the bottom to lessen the production of vapors.
A suitable vent pipe for each tank should lead outside the hull; vents should never terminate in closed places such as the engine compartment or under the deck. Minimum inside diameter of vent pipes should be 7./16 inch (11 mm). Where a vent ends on the hull, the outlet should be fitted with a removable flame screen to protect against flashbacks from outside sources of ignition. In boats that normally heel, such as auxiliary sailboats, it may be necessary to have dual vents with the port tank vent led to the starboard side and vice versa.
Nonmetallic hose may be used as a coupling between sections of metallic fill piping. The hose must be reinforced or of sufficient thickness to prevent collapse. A grounding jumper wire must be installed across the nonconducting section to provide a complete electrical path from the deck fitting to the fuel tank, which in turn is grounded.
If the fuel supply for an auxiliary electric plant is not drawn from the main tank, the separate tank should be installed with its own filler and vent.
Fuel Lines
Fuel lines should be run in sight as much as possible for ease of inspection, protected from possible damage, and secured against vibration by soft nonferrous metal clips with rounded edges. Soft copper tubing is the long-standing choice for gasoline and diesel fuel lines—and copper-nickel, nickel-copper, and stainless steel are also acceptable—but reinforced nonmetallic hose is a better choice, being cheaper, easier to install, and less likely to harden and crack. A short length of flexible tubing with suitable fittings should be used between the part of a metal fuel line that is secured to the hull and the part that is secured to the engine itself—this will prevent leakage or breakage as a result of vibration.
If reinforced nonmetallic hose is used for the full distance from the tank shutoff valve to the engine, the line should be visible and accessible for its entire length. Wherever used, nonmetallic hose must be dated by the manufacturer and not used for a period longer than that recommended by the maker. The use of ethanol-blended gasoline requires significantly greater attention to the condition of the fuel and the fuel system.
Tube fittings should be of nonferrous drawn or forged metal of the flared type, and metal tubing should be properly flared by tools designed for the purpose.
A shutoff valve should be installed in the fuel line directly at the tank connection. Arrangements should be provided for ready access and operation of this valve from outside the compartment in which tanks are located, preferably from above-deck. Where engine and fuel tank are separated by a distance exceeding 12 feet (3.7 m), an approved-type manual stop-valve should be installed at the engine end of the fuel line to stop fuel flow when servicing accessories.
Valves should be of nonferrous metal with ground seats installed to close against the flow. Types that depend on packing to prevent leakage at the stem should not be used. For fuel and oil lines, a type of diaphragm packless valve is available that is pressure-tight in any position. A UL-listed electric fuel valve shuts off the flow of gasoline whenever the ignition switch is turned off; it can also be independently turned off in an emergency.
Fuel Pumps & Filters
Electric fuel pumps, where used, should be located at the engine end of fuel lines. They must be connected so that they operate only when the ignition switch is on.
A filter should be installed in the fuel line inside the engine compartment, properly supported so that its weight is not carried by the tubing. Closure of the filter must be designed so that opening it for cleaning will not cause fuel to spill. It should also be designed so that the unit can be disassembled and reassembled in dim light without undue opportunity for crossing threads, displacing gaskets or seals, or assembling parts in an improper order that might result in fuel seepage after assembly. Fuel filter bowls should be highly resistant to shattering from impact and resistant to failure from thermal shock.
Fuel-Vapor Detectors
A FUEL-VAPOR DETECTOR is considered by many boaters to be an essential item of safety equipment on board any craft using gasoline as a fuel. These devices provide a visual, and in many units an audible, warning of the buildup of any dangerous concentration of fuel vapor in the engine space and bilges; see Figure 11-17. It is important to remember, however, that they are not an absolutely positive means of alerting you to a hazardous condition; they are not as infallible as the human nose. If in doubt, open the spaces and use your nose—it is the best “bilge sniffer.”
Fuel-vapor detectors come in several designs, each with good points and disadvantages. These include hot-wire, cold-sensor, and semiconductor types of detector units. Price does not vary much between these types, and a choice should be made on the features of the designs and their suitability for your particular installation. Some sensors will detect hazardous levels of other gases such as propane (LPG), carbon monoxide, or hydrogen (from storage-battery charging).
Installing a fuel-vapor detector is not difficult electrically or mechanically, but it must be done correctly. The location of the detector unit is most important; the alarm display must be where it will be seen and heard. When completed, have your installation inspected by a surveyor or a safety inspector from your insurance company.
Figure 11-17 Fuel-vapor detectors are considered essential safety items onboard a vessel using gasoline as a fuel, but the human nose is the best and most reliable detector.
Fuel Systems for Outboards
Fuel tanks and systems permanently installed in the hull of outboard-powered boats should be designed, constructed, and installed in accordance with the previously stated principles. No pressurized tanks should be built into or permanently attached to the hulls. A quick-disconnect coupling may be used between motor and fuel line but, when disconnected, it must automatically shut off fuel flow from the tank with a minimum of spillage; see Figure 11-18.
Be cautious in using polyethylene containers for storing gasoline; they can accumulate a static charge that is not drained off by grounding connections. A static electricity-generated spark could ignite vapors in the container.
Polyethylene containers should meet fire retardance and fuel-compatibility requirements of ABYC. The containers should carry the approval of a national listing agency or a major city fire department. Do not use any other type of plastic container for gasoline or other flammable liquid. Stow any portable fuel container in a well-ventilated place, protected from both physical damage and exposure to direct sunlight. Any leakage or vapors must drain overboard.
Be extremely careful that not even a single drop of gasoline finds its way into the bilge. Proper bilge ventilation is a strict legal requirement and vital safety measure; see Chapter 3.
Figure 11-18 Portable fuel tanks used with outboard motors are equipped with quick-disconnect fittings designed to minimize fuel leakage when connecting and disconnecting.
Fuel Systems of Diesel-Powered Boats
Fuel systems of diesel-powered boats generally conform to safety standards for gasoline-fueled vessels, with a few exceptions as required or permitted by the nature of the fuel and characteristics of diesel engines.
Tanks for diesel fuel may be iron or steel as well as nickel-copper. They may be painted if not galvanized externally; iron tanks must not be galvanized internally. Fiberglass is an excellent material for diesel tanks, and the ABYC now accepts 316L and 317L stainless steel for diesel tanks if properly welded. Diesel tanks may have a sump or pocket in the bottom for collection of water. Tanks for diesel fuel may be integral with the hull.
Fuel lines for diesel fuel may be of iron or steel pipe or tubing in addition to the metals approved for gasoline. A return line to carry excess fuel from the engine back to the tank is needed.
Additional Information
Many additional technical details on gasoline and diesel fuel systems for boats will be found in ABYC Safety Standards H-24, H-25, and H-33.
Underwriters Laboratories Marine Division has evaluated and accepted for listing a number of tanks, filters, valves, and related equipment by various manufacturers.
Exhaust Systems
Exhaust lines and pipes should be installed so that they cannot scorch or ignite woodwork. Where necessary, gratings can be used to prevent gear from touching the line. Exhaust systems must be gas-tight, and constructed and installed so that they can be inspected and repaired readily along their entire length. Any leaks must be rectified at once to prevent escape of exhaust gases into various compartments. Carbon monoxide is a deadly odorless gas.
A “wet” exhaust system requires a continuous flow of cooling water (from the heat exchanger or the engine block) discharged through the exhaust line, entering as close to the manifold as possible. Exhaust systems of the “dry stack” type (no cooling water) operate at considerably higher temperatures, and their use is relatively rare except on larger vessels and commercial fishing boats.
An exhaust system should be run with a minimum number of bends. Where turns are necessary, use long-sweep elbows or multiple 45° ells to avoid tight bends. The exhaust system must not cause back pressure at the exhaust manifold greater than that specified by the engine manufacturer. A small pipe tap, located not more than 6 inches (15.2 cm) from the exhaust manifold outlet, should be provided for measuring back pressure.
The exhaust system should be designed to prevent undue stress on the exhaust manifold, particularly where an engine is shock-mounted. All supports, hangers, brackets, and other fittings in contact with the exhaust should be noncombustible and so constructed that high temperatures will not be transmitted to wood or other combustible materials to which fittings are secured.
The exhaust piping or tubing of engines installed above the waterline should have a continuous downward pitch of at least ½ inch per foot (1 cm per 24 cm) and must be designed and installed to eliminate any possibility of cooling water or seawater returning to the engine manifold through the exhaust system.
Exhaust Systems for Sailboat Engines
Exhaust systems for auxiliary-powered sailboats should be designed to prevent sea or cooling water from running back into the engine when these are installed close to or below the waterline. A riser should reach above the waterline sufficiently to allow a steep drop-off; see the manufacturer’s installation instructions for the specific height. The high point should be a gooseneck, with cooling water injected aft of this point; see Figure 11-19. Any dry section of an exhaust system must be adequately insulated with materials that can withstand the high temperatures involved. As an alternate arrangement, installation of a water-trap silencer is recommended.
Figure 11-19 The ABYC standard for small-craft engine exhaust systems has special provisions for auxiliary sailboats. When an engine is located below the waterline, a high-rising loop must be installed in the exhaust line to bring it above the waterline. Dimensions may vary; see the instruction manual for your engine.
Flexible Exhaust Lines
Steam hose or other nonmetallic material may be used for exhaust lines where greater flexibility is desired. Every flexible line of this type must be secured with adequate clamps of corrosion-resistant metal at each end. Hose used for this purpose must have a wall thickness and rigidity sufficient to prevent collapse or internal separation of plies. Full-length nonmetallic exhaust tubing may be used in wet exhaust systems providing it is water-cooled throughout its length and is not subjected to temperature above 280°F (138°C). Tubing used for exhaust service should be specifically constructed for that purpose and so labeled by the manufacturer. Tubing should be installed in a manner that will not stress or crimp the inner or outer plies.
Additional Information
ABYC Safety Standard P-1 provides much additional information on “wet” and “dry” exhaust installations. It should be studied by anyone building or rebuilding a boat equipped with an inboard engine.
SAFEGUARDING AGAINST CARBON MONOXIDE
Although most recreational boaters are conscious of potential dangers on the water, the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning is often overlooked. It is important to know the facts about this invisible killer and to take the necessary steps to ensure safety on board. Carbon monoxide (CO) gas is clear and odorless, and may be present even when exhaust smoke is not.
Its initial toxic symptoms are deceptively similar to those of seasickness: headaches, dizziness, and lack of coordination as well as other symptoms such as drowsiness. Moreover, the individual who experiences symptoms of carbon-monoxide poisoning tends to lose any healthy fear that danger is imminent.
When carbon monoxide is inhaled, CO molecules attach themselves to red blood cells—as oxygen molecules do in a person who is breathing clean air. The result is a lack of oxygen for the tissues with subsequent death of the tissue and, if prolonged, death of that person.
Precautions
A boater whose craft is equipped with a permanently installed gasoline engine, permanently installed or portable gasoline-powered genset (auxiliary generating plant for 120-volt AC power, see Chapter 19), or any fuel-burning stove, heater, cooking grille, or lamp must be constantly alert to the danger of CO poisoning. Adequate ventilation must be maintained at all times.
Cabin cruisers are particularly susceptible to problems involving carbon-monoxide poisoning. The best way to prevent CO from getting into passenger areas and sleeping spaces is to provide alternate sources of air. For example, leave a part of the windshield open and open a deck hatch. If you can feel a flow of air coming aft through the cabin and cockpit areas, you can reduce the chances that carbon monoxide will be pulled forward and into the boat due to backdrafting.
Backdrafting is caused by air movement over or around a boat, creating a low-pressure area at the stern that can increase CO levels on board. Dangerous concentrations of CO can also accumulate when a boat’s engine or generator is operated while the boat is alongside other boats, next to a seawall, or in a confined area such as a boathouse. Be aware of the effect that your craft’s exhaust may have on other vessels; likewise, be aware that another vessel’s equipment may affect the CO levels on your boat.
Regular inspections and proper maintenance are the ways to prevent CO leaks from exhaust systems. Look and listen for leaks in exhaust systems of generators and propulsion engines. Look for discoloration around joints in the system. Make sure that all hose clamps in the exhaust system are secured properly. Double-clamping rubber hose connections at each end will help prevent the exhaust hose from vibrating loose. All holes or gaps in the engine room bulkheads for plumbing, wiring, and controls should be sealed.
Never allow in-water activities near the stern exhaust when an engine or genset is running.
Carbon monoxide gas detectors should be considered by all safety-conscious skippers.
What to Do
In the event that a person on board displays symptoms of CO poisoning, immediately evacuate all enclosed spaces; give the affected individual oxygen if it is available; contact medical help, and if the person is not breathing, perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
A boat’s entire electrical installation should comply with the best safety practices. Requirements of marine installations are more exacting than other applications where salt- and moisture-laden atmospheres are not prevalent. Wiring and other electrical equipment should be installed correctly in the beginning and kept safe by frequent inspection. Detailed information on boat electrical systems can be found in Chapter 19.
Lightning Protection
You only infrequently hear of a boat, power or sail, being struck by lightning, but this can and does, happen. And when it does happen, serious, even fatal, consequences may ensue. You can add to both your physical safety and your peace of mind by getting adequate basic information and taking certain precautions.
The voltages involved in lightning are tremendous—materials normally considered to be nonconductive become conductors, and that includes the human body. The voltages are so high that if they start to travel through a boat’s structure—say, through its mast—then meet high resistance—for instance, the hull’s skin—the current discharge, in its drive to reach ground potential, may simply blow a hole in the nonconductive barrier.
Protection Principles
The theory in any shipboard lightning protection system is to create what is known as a “Faraday’s cage,” after the nineteenth-century scientist Michael Faraday. The principle of a Faraday’s cage is to provide a surrounding, well-grounded metal structure, all of whose parts are bonded together and at the same electrical potential. Such a cage may possibly increase the likelihood of a lightning strike, but if one does occur, it carries the charge directly to ground, thereby protecting life and limb within its boundaries.
On a boat, the cage is formed by bonding together, with heavy conductors, a sailboat’s mast and all other major metal masses—for example, engines, stoves, air-conditioning compressors, railings, arches and the like—and providing a direct, low-resistance conductive path to ground (the water), usually via the engine and propeller shaft, or keel bolts, or, even better, a separate external ground plate, at least 1 ft2 (0.093 m2) in area. (Although actual data are not available, it is believed that a long narrow strip, for example, 1 inch by 12 feet, is more effective than a 1-foot square plate.) Of course, it’s necessary to ensure that crew fall within the protection of the confines of the cage, something that is not always feasible when the vessel is not built of steel or aluminum. And in this respect, on a fiberglass or wooden craft, it’s advantageous to have a mast or other conductive metal protrusion extending well above the vessel, creating what is known as a “cone” or zone of protection.
It’s generally accepted that this zone of protection extends 45 degrees from the vertical from all around the tip of such a metal protrusion; see Figure 11-20. Thus, if the aluminum mast of the average sailing vessel is properly bonded to the vessel’s other major metal masses and given a direct, low-resistance conductive path to ground, essentially the entire boat should fall within the protected zone, that is, inside the cage. If a sailing vessel has a wooden or plastic composite mast, the same effect can be achieved by installing a 6- to 12-inch metal spike at the masthead and running a sufficiently heavy conductor from it down the mast and as directly as possible to ground. To provide an adequately grounded conductor or protective mast, the entire circuit from the masthead to the ground (water) connection should have conductivity equivalent to a No. 4-gauge wire, recently increased from the previous recommended size of No. 8. (Any copper strip used should not be thinner than No. 20 gauge, 0.032 inch, 0.8 mm.) An aluminum or steel hull, of course, constitutes an excellent ground connection to the water. The path followed by the grounding conductor should be essentially straight, with no sharp bends.
Figure 11-20 A measure of lightning protection can be obtained by using the principle of a “Faraday’s cage.” A high, pointed conductor, heavily wired to all of the conductive parts of the boat, seems to cast a cone-shaped umbrella in which lightning does not strike. Instead, the electricity is conducted safely to “ground” in the water via submerged metal parts such as the rudder, propeller, sailboat keel, or special ground plate.
In the case of powerboats, ensuring sufficient mast height is quite often difficult; and it may not be possible, given the limitations, to ensure that a person standing on deck always falls within the zone of protection. Keep in mind that you cannot rely on fiberglass radio antennas for this purpose, as they do not afford a sufficiently low-resistance path, and possibly because of their construction, no path at all. (The most common antennas, those used for VHF, CB, or SSB radios, offer no conductive path.) The best advice in such cases is to work with an expert in the field, if you’re considering the possibility of using an antenna as a lightning mast.
It is possible in a powerboat to install a separate lightning mast. But, if the mast is hinged for getting under bridges or for general nonthreatening conditions, a jumper of adequately heavy wire should be installed to provide a bypass around the hinge. In all cases on powerboats, it will generally be necessary to pay close attention to keeping crew within the zone of protection and isolated from contact with any metal objects during a lightning storm.
If there are metal objects of considerable size within a few feet of the grounding conductor, there will be a strong tendency for sparks or side flashes to jump to them from the grounding conductor. To prevent such possibly damaging flashes, an interconnecting conductor of the same size should be provided at all likely places.
Metal objects situated wholly on a boat’s exterior should be connected to the grounding conductor at their upper or nearest end. Metal objects within the boat may be connected to the lightning protective system directly or through the bonding system for underwater metal parts.
Metal objects that project through cabin tops, decks, etc., should be bonded to the nearest lightning conductor at the point where the object emerges from the boat and again at its extreme lowest end within the boat. Spotlights and other objects projecting through cabin tops should be solidly grounded regardless of the cone of protection.
Remember: A lightning protection system offers no protection when the boat is out of the water.
Additional information on lightning protection will be found in ABYC Standard E-4.
LIGHTNING PROTECTION FOR PERSONNEL
The basic purpose of lightning protection is safety for people; everyone on board should take the following precautions.
• Stay inside a closed boat as much as possible during an electrical storm.
• Put on a PFD; if hit by lightning, you may become unconscious and fall overboard.
• Avoid making contact with any item connected to a lightning protective conductor, and especially in a way that bridges two parts of the grounding system.
• Stay out of the water; keep hands and feet out of the water.
Danger from Overhead Power Lines
Although it is not related to lightning hazards, a skipper should be aware of the fact that sailboats face a serious danger from contact with overhead power lines—both underway and, more often, as they are being launched or hauled out. Sailors must always be aware of power lines and be sure of their clearances. Remember: A lightning protection system is not designed to provide protection if any part of the boat comes in contact with power lines while afloat or ashore.
EQUIPMENT FOR SAFETY
Some safety equipment is required by law and Coast Guard regulations. These requirements are generally written in such broad language, however, that boaters need additional knowledge and guidance. Boats need to have numerous additional items of equipment beyond the legal minimum to achieve a full measure of safety. Additional devices and pieces of equipment are desirable for operational efficiency and convenience. Many of these are discussed in Chapter 3 and other chapters. This chapter supplements equipment considerations covered elsewhere in the book.
Lifesaving Equipment
As noted in Chapter 3, each boat must, by law, have a personal flotation device (PFD) for each person on board, and water-skiers towed behind are counted as being “on board.” A wise skipper does not skimp on quality or quantity of his life jackets, making sure that he has enough even if a few unexpected guests show up.
Where the type of life jacket used comes in different sizes, such as adult and children’s life preservers, or the three sizes of buoyant vests, the life jacket must be of an appropriate size for the person who is to wear it.
Although the regulations allow a choice from several categories of life jackets, the safety-conscious skipper will choose Type I. This type provides the maximum buoyancy and will hold a person’s face clear of the water so he can breathe even though unconscious. The exception to this maxim is the use of inflatable life jackets: their greater degree of comfort while being worn increases the likelihood that they will be worn a greater percentage of the time on board.
Fire Extinguishers
Beyond the legal minimum requirements, ABYC Safety Standards A-4 makes a number of recommendations that should be considered. On inboard or inboard/outboard boats with an engine compartment, there should be provision for discharging a CO2 or other chemical-vapor extinguisher directly into the engine space without opening the primary access. This will prevent the addition of oxygen that would further fuel the fire; remaining outside the compartment containing the fire will also increase the personal safety of the individual using the extinguisher. A caution sign should be posted to not open the engine compartment.
The ABYC Standards includes recommendations for the appropriate size of extinguishers for various volumes or engine compartments. Regardless of the type or size of installed system, it is recommended that there be a sign at each helm position to shut down the engine immediately when the extinguisher activates—if the engine is not shut down, a portion of the extinguishing agent will be sucked into the engine, and thus its extinguishing capability will be lost.
Pumps & Bailers
There are no federal requirements that a boat (if used exclusively for recreation) be equipped with a bailing device, but all boats should be equipped with some form of pump or bailer. Too many skippers place their full dependence on electric bilge pumps, and perhaps on only one of those. Once water rises in the bilge high enough to short out the battery, the pump is out of action. (On most boats the batteries are placed low in the bilge—excellent for stability, but not for safety if the boat starts taking on water.)
Only the smallest boats should depend on a hand bailer or bucket. Other boats should be equipped with a manually operated pump of generous capacity. Such an item can be either a fixed installation or a portable pump stowed where it can be quickly and easily reached when needed.
Bilge Water Alarms
Electric bilge pumps are normally actuated by float switches. These are generally reliable and provide a great convenience, but are not to be solely depended upon. Safety is much enhanced by the installation of a BILGE WATER ALARM. This quite simple system consists of an additional water level sensing switch mounted at a level that is a few inches above that of the switch that operates the bilge pump. This is wired to a source of 12-volt DC power and one or more alarms, both visible and audible. One such alarm should be at the normal helm position and another near the skipper’s sleeping location. The audible alarms should be loud enough to be heard over the normal noise level of the engines, and loud enough to awaken a sleeping person. Additional alarms around the boat are probably not needed, as conditions are quiet enough at anchor or when docked that one or both of the alarms will be heard. For boats stored in a slip, an external alarm may be rigged to alert marina personnel of a flooding condition.
Distress Signaling Equipment
A boat’s radio is probably the most often used and effective means of summoning assistance in an emergency. Use of the radio for this purpose is covered in Chapter 20. Cell phones should not be relied upon for distress communications. The legal requirements for visual distress signals are covered in Chapter 3. A distress signal can also be made to other vessels in sight by slowly raising and lowering one’s arms stretched out to each side or by use of a signaling mirror. In a pinch, a CD will serve as a mirror.
Signal flares may be projected several hundred feet into the air by a special type of pistol. The laws of several states regulate possession of these and similar explosive projectile devices; check before putting one on board, but if permissible, these are effective items of safety equipment.
Flares can be single- or double-ended, the latter producing a bright flame at one end for night use and a dense smoke at the other end for day distress situations. Before using any flare, read all instructions carefully so as to avoid personal injury or aggravation of the emergency. Read before any emergency arises. Your preparation for emergencies and the training of your crew should include familiarization with all distress signaling equipment.
Distress signaling equipment of any type should be stored in protective, waterproof containers and stowed where it is readily available for use in an emergency or to be taken off the boat if it must be abandoned. Contents should be inspected at least annually; flares have an expiration date and must be replaced periodically.
BASIC FIRST-AID KIT
In addition to at least one comprehensive firstaid manual, your boat should be equipped with a first-aid kit designed specifically for your needs, according to the length of your voyages and the areas in which you cruise.
Day and weekend boaters, for example, need at least a kit stocked with basics, such as a thermometer, tweezers, alcohol, sunscreen, bandages of various sizes, scissors, an eye-washing cup, and a hot-water bottle/ice bag. Use of more advanced items requires proper training.
Depending on the cruising waters and the crewmembers aboard, it may also be wise to stock items such as remedies for seasickness and jellyfish stings. Long-range offshore cruisers require more extensive first-aid supplies and lifesaving equipment, as well as a wide range of prescription medications. In order to reduce the caregiver’s risk of infection, every first-aid kit should also include a waterless antiseptic hand cleaner and disposable gloves.
When assembling your first-aid kit, consult more than one source to assess your needs. There are a number of books available on the subject of first aid for boaters and medical emergencies at sea. Also discuss your needs with the instructors of any first-aid or safe-boating courses in which you enroll. Finally, get your doctor’s advice. If you stock prescription medications, make sure the expiration dates are clearly marked, and that each prescription is replaced when necessary. An off-the-shelf kit may be the starting point, but you may need to add further items to meet your specific requirements. Once your supplies are assembled, store them in a watertight plastic container (to avoid rusting problems) in a dry, secure compartment. Review your kit periodically, making sure that it continues to suit your needs, that each item is in good working order, and that medicines have not become outdated.
A number of companies offer kits designed for various boating needs—ranging from basic kits for day outings and short local cruises (above) to more extensive offshore cruising kits. Be sure to add any necessary supplies not included in the kit.
Miscellaneous Items of Safety Equipment
There are many small items of equipment that increase safety and convenience.
All but the smallest boats should be equipped with several FLASHLIGHTS and at least one battery-powered ELECTRIC LANTERN. Flashlights should be distributed where they will be quickly available in an emergency. One should be within reach of the skipper’s bunk. There should also be a flashlight in the guest cabin, if any, and another on the bridge. Batteries in all units should be checked monthly to be sure of sufficient power. All should be completely waterproof, and lanterns should be the kind that will float if dropped overboard.
An installed searchlight of adequate intensity is desirable on medium-size and large boats. It is useful both in routine navigation and docking, and in emergencies such as man-overboard situations or assisting another boat in distress.
Boats of medium or large size should have on board some means, such as a hatchet, of cutting lines in an emergency.
TOOLS and REPAIR PARTS for the engine and major accessories can be considered parts of a boat’s essential safety equipment. Personal experience and conversation with seasoned skippers will offer the best guidance to just what tools and parts should be carried aboard any particular boat. Insofar as possible, tools should be of rust-proof metal; tools susceptible to rust or corrosion, and all spare parts, should be given a protective coating, and stowed to protect them from adverse effects of a marine environment.
All but the smallest boats should carry EMERGENCY DRINKING WATER and FOOD supplies—a life raft must, and a dinghy should, have such items; see Figure 11-21. The amount will vary with the number of persons normally on board. The type of food is not important—anything will do when you get hungry enough! Nonperishability over a long period is important, but it might be wise once each year to consume your emergency supplies (a shipwreck party?) after they have been replaced with a fresh stock. Such items can usually be purchased from marine supply stores or from army-navy surplus stores; food should be simple and compact, but sustaining and energy-producing.
Figure 11-21 Every boat, even a dinghy, should carry a supply of emergency water and food, with the type and amount based on the size of the boat, its crew, and its normal cruising area. Prepared kits of long shelf-life products can be purchased, or a boater can assemble his own package of emergency supplies.
FIRST-AID KITS are essential safety items; refer to the sidebar, “Basic First-Aid Kit,” opposite.
NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT, CHARTS, and GROUND TACKLE are all items of safety equipment, but each is considered in detail elsewhere in this book.
VESSEL SAFETY-CHECK REQUIREMENTS
The long-time Courtesy Marine Examination program of the U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary has been expanded, revised, and renamed. The new Vessel Safety Check (VSC) program now includes checks by members of the United States Power Squadrons as well as members of the USCG Auxiliary.
A Vessel Safety Check is a courtesy examination of your boat to verify the presence and condition of safety equipment required by federal regulations, plus certain additional requirements. A boat must also meet any requirements of the state in which it is being examined.
Following the examination, the specially trained examiner will also make recommendations and discuss safety issues that may make you a safer boater. This is not a law enforcement action; no citations will be issued as a result of the examination. You will receive a copy of the evaluation of your boat so that you may follow the suggestions given. The examination is free, and boats that pass the examination will be able to display the distinctive VSC decal (actually, sticker), which is valid until the end of the calendar year in which it was issued.) This does not exempt your boat from law enforcement boarding.
The requirements for the decal, listed below, make a good checklist for any well-equipped boat.
Numbering & Paperwork
The boat must be properly registered by a state or documented by the Coast Guard; the paperwork must be on board; refer to Chapter 2.
For state-registered boats, the registration numbers must be permanently displayed on each side of the forward half of the boat; they read from left to right, and there must be no other numbers. The letters and numerals must be plain, vertical, block characters not less than three inches high, and in a color contrasting with the background. A dash or a space equal in width to a letter must separate the numerals from the letters that precede and follow them; for example, FL-1235-AB or FL 1234 AB. Any state validation sticker should be placed in accordance with that state’s requirements.
For a documented boat, the documentation number must be permanently marked on a visible part of the interior structure. A recreational craft’s name and hailing port must be displayed in letters not less than four inches in height on some clearly visible exterior part of the hull; no specific location is required. The hailing port must consist of both a city and a state; only the state may be abbreviated.
Personal Flotation Devices (PFDs)
An approved personal flotation device in good serviceable condition, and of a suitable size, is required for each person on the boat, with a minimum of one throwable for boats 16 feet (4.9 m) and over. Children must have properly fitted PFDs designed for children and suitable for their size (children’s PFDs come in various sizes marked for the weight of the user).
Wearable PFDs, including inflatable PFDs, must be readily accessible; throwable devices must be immediately available. PFDs must not be stored in unopened plastic packaging. All PFDs on board will be examined even if there are more than the legally required minimum.
For an inflatable PFD to count toward the legal requirements, the person (16 or more years of age) for whom it is intended must be wearing it if the label so states.
Visual Distress Signals
To receive VSC approval, recreational boats 16 feet (4.9 m) and over used on coastal waters or the Great Lakes must have Coast Guard-approved day and night visual distress signals (VDS) that have not reached their expiration dates. Manufacture and expirations dates must be legible to meet decal requirements. Signals with expired dates are allowed on board as excess equipment. VDSs must be properly protected from moisture damage and readily accessible for use. Some signals, such as red flares, can serve for both day and night requirements. See Chapter 3.
Fire Extinguishers
All boats must have at least the minimum number of USCG-approved fire extinguishers of the capacity and type required by regulations.
Seals and tamper indicators must not be broken or damaged. Pressure gauges or indicators must be in the operable range. There must be no obvious physical damage or deterioration, no clogged nozzles.
CO2 and other chemical-vapor-type extinguishers must be weighed and tagged by a recognized authority annually. Pressure gauges should be checked every six months. Manual controls for fixed systems must be located outside the space being protected.
All hand-portable extinguishers should be mounted, but this is not a requirement for award of the VSC decal.
Ventilation
The VSC examiner will check that the boat meets the Coast Guard requirements for manual and powered ventilation of spaces where explosive vapors might collect; see Chapter 3. All such spaces must be opened for examination; there must be no evidence of any fuel leaks.
Ducts and openings must not be blocked; blowers must be operational.
On boats built after 31 July, 1980, the manufacturer’s Certificate of Compliance will be accepted as proof that the ventilation system is properly designed and installed provided that it does not appear to have been altered and has been adequately maintained.
Backfire Flame Control
Every boat with a gasoline engine installed, except outboard motors, must be equipped with an acceptable means of backfire flame control. Fuel-injected engines must have such a flame arrester over the air intake. In both cases, the device must be attached with a flame-tight connector. The approval number must be clearly visible.
Sound-Producing Device
To receive the VSC decal, a boat must meet the legal requirements for a “sound-producing device.”
A craft 12 meters (39.4 ft) or more in length must have on board a horn or whistle (“athletic whistles” are not acceptable).
A boat less than 12 meters (39.4 ft) in length need not have the above devices, but must have “an efficient sound-signaling device.” This may be a whistle, horn, or other means to signal their intentions and/or position in periods of reduced visibility—athletic whistles are acceptable.
Navigation Lights
The law does not require that a boat operated only in the daylight have navigation lights, but in order to meet the VSC standards for all craft 16 feet (4.9 m) or more in length, in a boat that does have lights they must be properly mounted and functioning. Proper lights for use both underway and at anchor must be shown. A sailboat with an auxiliary engine must be capable of showing the lights of both a sailboat and a powerboat; the lights must be wired so that they can be changed from one display to the other.
Cracked or discolored lenses are not acceptable. The decal will not be awarded if lights are grossly misplaced, even if they are operable.
Navigation lights must show unbroken light through the prescribed arcs of visibility. All-around lights may not be obstructed for more than six degerees by items such as collapsible canopies, Bimini tops, masts, and similar items.
Pollution Placards
A boat 26 feet (7.9 m) or more in length with a machinery compartment must have an “oily waste pollution” placard no smaller than 5 by 8 inches (13 x 20 cm) and made of a durable material, posted in the machinery space or where the bilge pump switch is located. Boats of this length must also display a 4 x 9-inch (10 x 22.5 cm) “MARPOL” waste placard (garbage dumping restrictions) “in a prominent location.” Craft 40 feet (12.2 m) and over must have a written Waste Management Plan describing the procedures for collecting, processing, storing, and discharging of garbage. The plan must designate the person in charge of carrying out the plan.
Marine Sanitation Device
Any installed MSD must be a Coast Guard-approved device. Overboard discharge outlets must be capable of being sealed. Special local or state restrictions may apply.
Overall Boat Condition
The boat must be free from fire hazards and in good overall condition, with bilges reasonably clean and visible hull structure generally sound. The use of automobile parts on boat engines is not acceptable. The engine horsepower must not exceed that shown on any capacity plate.
The electrical system must be protected by fuses or trip-free circuit breakers. Wiring must be in good condition, properly installed, with no exposed areas or deteriorated insulation. Batteries must be firmly secured with terminals covered or protected by a battery box cover.
Any self-circling or kill-switch mechanisms must be in proper working order. All personal watercraft (PWCs) must have a self-circling or kill-switch mechanism.
Portable fuel tanks (normally 7 gallons or less) must be of nonbreakable material and must be free of corrosion and leaks. All vents must be capable of being closed. The tank must be secured and have a vapor-tight, leak-proof cap. Each permanent fuel tank must be properly vented.
Galley stoves and heating systems must have fuel tanks that are properly secured with no flammable material nearby.
VSC RECOMMENDATIONS
The VSC program also recommends a number of items for the safety and proper operation of a boat—items beyond those required for award of the decal. The actual selection of items from this list will depend on the size and use of the boat involved; the VSC examiner will make recommendations and suggestions. The VSC list includes the following items:
Marine radio
Dewatering device and backup (scoop or bilge pump)
Mounted fire extinguishers in appropriate locations
Anchor and line, suitable for area
First-aid kit
Person-in-the-water kit (one extra wearable PFD and a throwable device with line attached)
Visual distress signals for inland boating
VSC examiners may also discuss operational and educational matters in the interest of increased safety. Topics might include:
Accident reporting
Operator responsibilities
Offshore operations
Charts and aids to navigation
First-aid and survival tips
Fueling and fuel management
Float plans
Insurance consideration
Boating checklists
Safe-boating classes
Additional information on the VSC program is available on the Internet at www.safetyseal.net
A Final Word on Fire Extinguishers
When it comes to equipping your boat with fire extinguishers, it is prudent to go beyond even the VSC requirements. Consider installing extinguishers in the following locations, or wherever else you deem necessary to meet the needs of your own boat:
The helm, where there is always someone when underway
The engine space or room
The galley
In each cabin or compartment and adjacent to the skipper’s bunk.
Safety Aspects of Other Equipment
Several items generally found on boats are not safety equipment per se, but have definite aspects of safety about their design, installation, or operation that must be considered by boat owners.
Galley Stoves
Galley stoves should be designed, manufactured, and approved for marine use. Types of fuel that are ordinarily used include alcohol, kerosene, electricity, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), also known as propane. Some boats are now using compressed natural gas (CNG) as stove fuel. Stoves fueled with coal, wood, diesel oil, or canned heat (solidified alcohol) are only rarely seen. Gasoline is not a safe stove fuel and should never be used on a boat.
Electricity is probably the safest source of heat for cooking, but shore power or an auxiliary generating plant is required to produce the large amounts of AC power required. Unpressurized alcohol stoves are used on some boats, although their high fuel cost and relatively low heating efficiency have reduced their popularity. Water will extinguish an alcohol fire but may spread the flames.
LPG stoves are excellent for cooking, but can present a serious safety hazard unless installed and operated in accordance with strict rules. An excellent guide to a safe LPG installation will be found in ABYC Safety Standard A-1. Propane tanks for marine use now must have an overfill protection device (OPD) when they are bought or taken in for a refill; the only exception is made for certain horizontal tanks. Existing tanks can be retrofitted with an OPD valve at a cost of about one-third that of replacing the tank.
Stoves should be securely fastened in place when in operation; see Figure 11-22. Portable stoves are not recommended; if one must be used, it should be secured while in use. Adequate ventilation should be provided to prevent too much heat when a stove is operated for extended periods of time. All woodwork and other combustible material around a stove, including smoke stacks, must be effectively protected with noncombustible sheathing, such as ⅛-inch (3.1 mm) heat-resistant board covered by sheet metal. Keep curtains and fabrics away from stoves.
Fuel for alcohol and kerosene stoves may be supplied to the burners either by gravity or pressure systems, provided fuel tanks cannot be filled while the burners are in operation except where the supply tank is remote from burners and the filling operation will not introduce a fire hazard. A removable or accessible liquid-tight metal drip pan at least ¾-inch (1.9-cm) deep should be provided under all burners. Pressure tanks should have suitable gauges and/or relief valves.
Figure 11-22 Galley stoves should be permanently and securely fastened in place. They should have guardrails that will keep pots and pans from sliding off the front. On sailboats, stoves are often gimbaled so that the cooking surface remains nearly level when the boat heels.
Refrigeration
Ice is used on some boats as a means of keeping food fresh and for cooling beverages. It offers no safety hazards, but water from melting ice should be piped overboard rather than into the bilge; a fresh-water drip tends to promote rot and/or odor. A collection sump, with pump, may be used, but is less desirable.
Mechanical refrigeration is normally of the electric-motor-driven compressor type using 12 VDC or 120 VAC power. On some boats a compressor is belt-driven from a main engine.
Safety aspects of mechanical refrigeration include use of a nontoxic and nonflammable refrigerant, nonsparking motors, safety valves on high-pressure portions of the system, and general construction adequate to survive the rigors of marine service.
Kerosene and propane “gas” refrigerators operate with a constant open flame and must be maintained in a precisely level position at all times. They are not suitable for use on a boat, and their use may void the boat’s insurance policy.
Heaters
Gasoline-fueled heaters must never be used on a boat. Portable kerosene or alcohol-fueled heaters pose a threat of CO poisoning and fire and are not recommended. Fixed-mount, externally vented diesel heaters may be used. Built-in electrical heaters are safe; portable electrical heaters should be used only if secured in place while in operation.
Any heater discharging combustion products must be vented through a stovepipe and a “charley noble” set in a water-cooled deck plate or other fire-preventive fitting. Many sailors favor coal- or charcoal-burning heaters, despite the mess they create and the problems of storing fuel, because of the even, dry heat that they deliver.
LPG (propane) heaters should have an automatic device to shut off the fuel supply if the flame is extinguished; pilot lights should not be used.
Many models of air-conditioning equipment used on boats are of the “reverse cycle” or “heat pump” type and can supply warmth rather than cooling when needed, provided that the surrounding water is not too cold. This is a thoroughly safe heating method.
MAINTENANCE FOR SAFETY
No matter what item of equipment is placed on board to enhance safety, it must be properly maintained to ensure continuous safety. Continual attention is needed for some safety gear; for others, periodic checks at weekly, monthly, or annual intervals is sufficient. The important thing is that these checks of safety equipment be made regularly when needed; use of a checklist is strongly recommended; see Figure 11-23.
Figure 11-23 When inspecting any system on a boat, use a checklist so that nothing is overlooked. When you are finished, be sure to follow up and correct any deficiencies that are found.
Keep Your Boat Clean
Cleanliness is an important aspect of safety. Accumulations of dirt and trash in the bilge will soak up oil and fuel drippings and become a fire hazard. Such accumulations may also stop up limber holes and clog bilge pumps. Keep your bilge absolutely free of dirt and trash; check frequently and clean out as often as needed.
Lifesaving Equipment
The maintenance of PFDs is covered in Chapter 3—make sure that these actions are listed on your safety maintenance checklist. Do not delay in replacing below-par lifesaving devices; attempt repairs only where full effectiveness can be restored. In case of doubt, ask the Coast Guard.
If you have a life raft on board, ensure that it receives the required periodic inspections at an authorized service facility at the intervals specified by the manufacturer.
Fire Extinguishers
Installed fire-extinguishing systems should be checked at least annually, more often if recommended by the manufacturer, whose maintenance procedures should be followed. An excellent procedure is to inspect at the beginning of the year’s boating activities, and again at mid-season. ABYC Standard A-4 recommends that portable extinguishers be checked at least monthly.
Dry-Chemical Extinguishers
Pressurized dry-chemical extinguishers have a gauge that should be checked for an indication of adequate pressure—the needle in the center of the green area of the scale. Do not, however, merely read the gauge; tap it lightly to make sure it is not stuck at a safe indication. If it drops to a lower reading, take the extinguisher to a service shop for recharging. Even if the gauge reads OK, take the unit out of its bracket, invert it, and shake it a bit to loosen the dry chemical inside to keep it from settling and hardening; the natural tendency to pack is increased by the motions and vibrations on a boat. If the contents of the extinguisher become tightly packed, some of it may not be discharged when the unit is used, and its firefighting effectiveness would be reduced.
Any areas on the exterior of the cylinder showing rust should be cleaned and repainted. Do not test by triggering a short burst of powder. The valve probably will not reseat fully, and the pressure will slowly leak off.
Most dry-chemical stored pressure extinguishers of less than 2.75-pound size are considered disposable and should be replaced if the pressure gauge reading is low. Larger, refillable extinguishers must be serviced in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
CO2 Extinguishers
Carbon-dioxide extinguishers must be checked annually by weight. Any seals on the valve trigger must be unbroken. Portable units and built-in systems have a weight stamped at the valve. If the total weight is down by 10 percent or more of the net weight of the contents, the cylinder must be recharged. The gauge of these units may indicate almost the full amount of pressure even if the cylinder is nearly empty of the extinguishing agent. Weighing is normally the only check for CO2 fire extinguishers, but it must be done accurately. Portable units can be checked by the skipper if he has suitably precise and accurate scales. Built-in systems are best checked by a professional serviceperson who has special knowledge and equipment.
CO2 cylinders also should display the date on which the cylinder was last hydrostatically pressure-tested. (This is done by emptying the cylinder of its extinguishing agent, then filling it with water and increasing the pressure to a value significantly greater than the working pressure; this testing will require a commercial facility.) Testing should be done every five years if the cylinder is not discharged. If the extinguisher is used, it must be pressure-tested before it is recharged if this has not been done within the preceding five years. If a used CO2 extinguisher is purchased, it should be discharged, hydrostatically tested, and recharged before it is installed aboard. The pressure in these cylinders is tremendous, and if the cylinder has been damaged through rust or corrosion, it is just like a time bomb, and you do not know when it may go off!
Carbon-dioxide extinguishers should not be installed where bilge or rainwater will collect and cause rust. Any exposed metal should be painted at each annual inspection. If a cylinder becomes pitted from rust, have it hydrostatically tested for safety. Replace any damaged hoses or horns on this type of extinguisher.
Other Chemical-Vapor Extinguishers
Pressure gauges on automatic systems using FE-241, HFC-227ea, or FM-200 and the like must be checked at 6-month intervals (a daily check is suggested by some manufacturers) and the cylinder weighed annually (NFPA 2001 6.1) using a scale of known accuracy capable of reading weight differences of less than one ounce. These extinguishers must be hydrostatically pressure-tested at 12-year intervals. (Halon is no longer manufactured, and Halon extinguishers are disappearing, as mentioned in Chapter 3.)
Periodic Discharges
It is a good policy to discharge a fire extinguisher periodically even though it is not needed for fighting a fire. An effective way of doing this would be to discharge one of the portable units each year on a regular rotation basis. This should be done in the presence of the whole crew and, as discussed earlier, preferably in the form of a drill, putting out a small fire—off the boat, of course—in a metal pan or tub. Probably 99 percent or more of all persons who go boating have never discharged a fire extinguisher, let alone used one to put out a fire. There is no time to read the instructions carefully and practice after a fire has started on your boat. A word of warning with respect to CO2 extinguishers: Never unscrew the hose from the cylinder and then discharge it openly; always hold the nozzle by its thermally-insulated handle.
Make sure that fire extinguishers are serviced by a competent shop and reinstalled as soon as possible after being removed for testing or practice discharge. It is wise not to strip your boat of fire protection by removing all extinguishers at the same time for servicing; do a half or a third at a time.
Log Entries
Make an entry in the boat’s log of all inspections, tests, and servicing of fire extinguishers. This will help keep these essential checks from being overlooked and may prove valuable in the event of insurance surveys or claims.
Engine & Fuel System
Check the engine and fuel system frequently for cleanliness and leaks. Wipe up any oil or grease drippings and stop leaks as soon as possible. Take immediate action in the case of any gasoline leaks. Do not use the boat, and disconnect the leads from the battery (with all loads turned off so that no spark will jump) so that the engine cannot be started.
Check the entire fuel system annually inch by inch, including fuel lines in areas not normally visible. Look for any evidence of seepage of fuel or external corrosion of the lines. If any suspicious joints or lengths of tubing or hose are found, call in a qualified mechanic without delay.
Bilge Ventilation System
Although it is the manufacturer’s responsibility to install a powered ventilation system on certain types of boats, it is the operator’s responsibility to ensure that the system continues to perform properly (and to use it!). Even if yours is an older boat, built before these requirements came into effect, maintain your bilge ventilation system in top operating condition.
Carbon-Monoxide Detectors
If your boat is equipped with a carbon-monoxide (CO) detector—and it should be—its proper operation must be checked periodically at the intervals and in the manner prescribed in its owner’s manual. You must be sure it will function if needed—it could save your life and the lives of others on board. While you must consider all alarm activations to be caused by CO, many of these detectors will sound an alarm if they detect the presence of hydrogen gas emitted at the end of a lead-acid battery charging cycle.
Electrical Systems A boat’s electrical system should be inspected thoroughly every year, including all wiring in areas not normally visible. This should be done by a person qualified to evaluate what he finds: by you if you have the necessary knowledge and experience, or by an outside expert if needed.
Search for any cut or chafed insulation, corrosion at connections, excessive sag or strain on conductors, and other visible signs of deterioration. A leakage test should be made by opening each circuit at the main distribution panel and measuring current flow when all loads are turned off. Ideally there should be no current flow; current of more than a few milliamperes indicates electrical “leakage” that should be tracked down and corrected without delay.
Maintenance of storage batteries is covered in Chapter 19.
Bonding Systems
If all through-hull fittings, struts, shafts, etc., are electrically connected by an internal bonding system, this wiring should be checked annually. Especially careful checks should be made where connections are made to the protected fitting or other metal part. Connections in the bilge are subject to corrosion and development of poor contacts with high electrical resistance.
The skipper can make a visual check of the bonding system, but an electrical expert with specialized equipment is needed for a thorough evaluation. Should any signs of corrosion at points of connection between bonding wires and through-hull fittings be noted, a complete electrical test is recommended.
With respect to possible electrolysis (stray current corrosion) damage, a bonding system with one or more poor connections may be worse than no system at all. Electrolysis can and does cause weakening of through-hull fittings, bolts on struts and rudder-posts, etc., that could result in serious safety hazards.
Hull Safety Maintenance
Boats normally kept in the water should be hauled out periodically for bottom cleaning and repainting. This occasion provides an opportunity for a safety inspection of hull and fittings below the waterline. On wood boats, check hull planking for physical damage and for any general deterioration from age. Check fiberglass hulls for any cracks, especially at points of high stress. Call in an expert if you find any suspicious areas.
Through-Hull Fittings
Operate seacocks once a month to ensure that they will remain easily movable. Check carefully for signs of leakage, deterioration of hoses, and corrosion of hose clamps. Clean out through-hull fittings, and clean and lubricate seacocks at the annual haul-out. Check that a closed seacock totally blocks the flow of water.
Underwater Components
Check underwater fittings annually. This includes shafts, propellers, rudders, struts, bearings, stuffing boxes, and metal skegs. Stuffing boxes should be repacked as often as necessary to keep them from leaking excessively. Shafts should be checked for alignment and excessive wear at strut bearings, and propellers examined to see if they need truing up.
Each “zinc”—galvanic corrosion protector—should be checked quarterly and replaced if more than half has eroded away.
Follow-up of Inspections
Nothing is gained if prompt and thorough follow-up actions are not taken on findings of periodic safety inspections. Maintenance related to safety must not be delayed. Do not operate a boat that has a known safety defect.
SAFETY IN THE WATER
Anyone who goes boating regularly should know how to care for himself in the water. Fortunately, most boaters and their families do know how to swim, but this may be limited to taking a few strokes in a calm, relatively warm pool, with safety and rest only a few feet away. Give special attention to staying afloat under adverse conditions of water temperature and waves. Seldom is it necessary or even desirable to swim any distance; the challenge is to stay afloat until help arrives. The skipper and crew should all have instructions in “drown-proofing.”
Safety in the water can well start with a swimming and/or lifesaving class at the local “Y” or community recreational center. Local American Red Cross chapters may give instruction in these subjects.
Lifesaving Devices
A person in the water following a boating accident should, of course, have a lifesaving device of some sort—a life jacket or a buoyant cushion. It is important that these devices be worn or used properly. Buoyant cushions are far from the best flotation device, but are widely used because of their convenience and low cost. Buoyant cushions are not intended to be worn. The straps on a buoyant cushion are put there for holding-on purposes and also to aid in throwing the device. Because they must be grasped, cushions are not suitable for small children or injured persons and are not desirable for nonswimmers. Cushions should never be worn on a person’s back, since this tends to force his face down in the water.
Type I life jackets with flotation material in sealed plastic pouches provide the greatest safety. Stow life jackets in several locations about the boat, so fire or other disaster cannot cut you off from all of them; they must also be easily accessible. Everyone on board, including guests, must know where the life jackets are stowed. You and your regular crew should have tried them on and should be able to get into them quickly even in the dark (practice while wearing a blindfold). Most importantly, order everyone into life jackets in advance of their need, if you can. Wearing a comfortable inflatable life jacket will provide a constant and valuable safety enhancement. At night, anyone on deck should routinely wear a life jacket; nonswimmers, young children, and persons physically handicapped or with a cast on an arm or leg should wear one at all times when not below decks.
Never carry on your boat any nonapproved, damaged, or condemned lifesaving devices as “extras”—someone might grab one of them in an emergency.
Swimming Tips
Even with the best lifesaving equipment aboard, you may find yourself in the water without the aid of a buoyant device or approved PFD. If your boat stays afloat or awash, stay with it. Search vessels and aircraft can spot a boat or its wreckage far more easily than an individual whose head only is above water.
While swimming you may find temporary relief from fatigue by floating or by varying your style of swimming. Cold or tired muscles are susceptible to cramps. A leg cramp can often be overcome by moving your knees up toward your chest so that you can massage the affected area. Save your breath as much as possible; call for help only when there is someone close enough to hear you.
WATER SAFETY TIPS
• Know your personal limits; avoid overextending yourself.
• Always swim with at least two other persons, never alone.
• Before diving, make sure that the water is deep enough and hazard-free; check for any change in tide level since last swimming. For the first dive, enter the water feet-first.
• When tired or overheated, stay out of the water.
• Rely on your swimming ability for support, not on inflatable or inherently buoyant objects, such as plastic toys or air-mattress rafts.
• If you are a nonswimmer, do not go into the water without a life jacket.
• Avoid carbon monoxide danger; never be in the water at the stern of a boat when an engine or genset is running.
FIRST AID AFLOAT
At the beginning of this chapter we considered certain responsibilities of the skipper. Another of these is caring for minor injuries and illnesses of his crew and guests. Your boat should have at least simple first-aid supplies and equipment, plus a manual of instructions for their use; you should have had basic first-aid instruction and CPR training.
But no one who is not educated and properly qualified to practice medicine should attempt to act as a doctor. There are, however, many instances where the availability of a first-aid kit, some knowledge on the part of the boater, and a ready reference book have materially eased pain or even saved the life of a sick or injured person on a boat. All skippers should be prepared to render emergency first aid, doing no more than is absolutely necessary while getting the victim to a doctor or hospital as rapidly as possible.
Responding Quickly to Medical Emergencies
On land, emergency medical assistance is usually just moments away. But on the water, you are on your own—at least for a longer period of time. As skipper of a boat, you are responsible for dealing with medical emergencies aboard, an obligation that relies on formal first-aid training and stocking the necessary supplies. It also means knowing the physical condition and any medical problems of everyone aboard your boat.
Your confidence and competence in handling medical emergencies should be on a par with your seamanship skills. That level of confidence comes from knowledge and practice; both can be acquired and honed by basic and advanced first-aid courses. Perhaps most important, you learn to stay calm in emergencies because you know what to do; see Figure 11-24. You can then make decisions and take the appropriate steps to keep a victim alive or to keep injuries stabilized until you can obtain emergency medical service.
Don’t neglect or delay first aid for minor cuts and scrapes; avoid possible infection. Apply an antiseptic and a bit of antibiotic cream or jelly (Neosporin, Polysporin, or equivalent); cover with a clean bandage if necessary. If there is reluctance on the part of the victim to receive first aid, the skipper must insist on prompt and adequate treatment.
Figure 11-24 As you first take immediate action in a medical emergency, check the victim for a medical information bracelet or pendant, which will bear an insignia resembling this one. This may provide vital information about a diagnosed medical condition, allergy, sensitivity, or prescribed medication.
Your Legal Responsibility
Legally, a victim must give consent before a person trained in first aid begins to help him or her. The law assumes that an unconscious person would give consent. If a victim is conscious, make sure you ask permission before administering first aid. If you are helping a victim previously unknown to you, ask a simple question: “My name is … I know first aid and I can help you until emergency assistance arrives; is that all right?”
You must be aware that emergencies in which the victim is an infant or child younger than eight years old may require special training and similar but varied techniques than for an adult or a child eight years or older. If you are likely to have infants or children under eight aboard your boat frequently, you should enroll in a first-aid course that specializes in first-aid techniques for that age group.
Calling for Emergency Help
In any medical emergency, it is essential to make sure that help is on the way—soon rather than too late. Even when in doubt about the severity of the victim’s condition, save precious seconds by immediately sending an urgent call using “Pan-Pan” (see Chapter 12). Remember the old adage that it’s better to be safe than sorry; you can always cancel the call if you get the situation under control.
There is the possibility that help will come from boats in the immediate vicinity. Until help arrives, take whatever first-aid measures you are qualified to perform. You usually can make contact with a doctor through the Coast Guard. Make a VHF/DSC Mayday and Ch 16 voice call or an HF call on 2182 kHz (DSC 2187.5 kHz). The USCG has access to military and U.S. Public Health physicians and, through its AMVER (Automated Mutual-Assistance Vessel Rescue) system, keeps track of ships at sea that have medical staff aboard. If you cannot reach the USCG, there are private companies that provide emergency medical services to ships at sea. One of these is MedAire, Inc., of Phoenix, AZ (480-333-3700; fax 480-333-3592; www.medaire.com), which can give immediate, real-time medical assistance to people in remote locations 24 hours a day, seven days a week from its response centers around the world. MedAire offers the expertise of emergency physicians, flight nurses, and paramedics and a database of medical providers, including 15,000 hospitals and clinics in more than 5,000 cities around the world; it specializes in the hospitalization, transportation, and evacuation of patients as needed.
CPR AND RESCUE BREATHING
As a skipper, you should take the time to secure first-aid and CPR training from The American Heart Association, American National Red Cross, National Safety Council, American Safety & Health Institute, or Medic First Aid. Each of these agencies offers training guidelines that are revised every five years.
Should someone on your vessel collapse or sustain serious injury, the first priority while administering immediate life-saving intervention is to radio for help. Use your radio to make a Mayday call to request assistance and briefly describe your onboard emergency.
When someone collapses and does not appear to be breathing—or is gasping—assume cardiac arrest has occurred; do not delay intervention. Previous guidelines called for an initial check for responsiveness, but the 2010 guidelines dispense with this in favor of immediate intervention. If you have a defibrillator on board (see below), have someone get it after initiating the Mayday call. If you do not have a defibrillator on board or are waiting for it to be deployed, immediately begin CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) as in illustrations #1 and #2.
If you or someone on board is a health-care provider, the CPR procedure will be slightly modified by the delivery of two rescue breaths every 30 compressions, as in illustrations #3 and #4. In addition, if the health-care provider determines that the victim has a palpable pulse but is still not breathing, one rescue breath will be delivered every 5 or 6 seconds, and the pulse will be re-checked every two minutes as in illustration #5. If the victim becomes pulseless at any time, CPR should be resumed immediately.
If the victim vomits or you must leave an unconscious person, roll him or her onto his or her side and clear the mouth and throat. Stabilize the person by bending his or her upper leg at the hip and knee. Raise the victim’s head slightly, extend the lower arm straight out under it, and gently lower the head until the extended arm supports it.
Cardiac arrest in children is a rarity, but respiratory arrest or drowning can occur. The procedures for delivering rescue breathing and CPR to children and infants are different than for adults, which is another good reason why a prudent skipper should secure training in CPR and first aid.
If you or any regular crewmember has a history of cardiac disease or could be prone to a cardiac condition, consider purchasing an automated external defibrillator (AED). The cost of an AED in 2012 ranged from $1,200 to $1,500. During CPR, while compressions are underway, apply the pads supplied with the AED to the victim and follow the instructions delivered by voice prompts from the AED. If the AED does not recommend shocking the victim, resume chest compressions for two minutes before checking the rhythm again with the AED. If a victim has had a return of pulses but becomes pulseless with the AED in place, resume chest compressions at a rate of 100 compressions per minute.
1 Unless the victim is obviously conscious with a suspected serious injury to his or her neck, place one hand on the victim’s hip and the other on his shoulder to roll him onto his back as shown. As the victim begins to roll, move your upper hand from the shoulder to the head so that it is supported as you complete the rotation.
2 To perform CPR chest compressions, place your hands in the middle of the victim’s chest and begin to press hard and press fast. Compressions should be given at a minimum of 100 times per minute and to a depth of 2 inches, allowing the chest to recoil after each compression. The key to good CPR is to avoid any unnecessary delays in compressions.
3 Rescue breathing was the primary recommended CPR method prior to 2010 but is now considered a secondary adjunct to chest compressions. Before performing rescue breathing, tilt the victim’s head back slightly—using a head-tilt/chin-lift action as shown by the arrows—so that the back of the tongue does not block the airway.
4 Pinch the victim’s nostrils closed as shown. Place your mouth over the victim’s mouth and deliver a full breath so that you can see the victim’s chest rise. Allow the victim to exhale after each such breath.
5 To check a pulse, place your fingertips to the side of the victim’s trachea; to do this, locate the Adam’s apple, then slide your fingers into the groove on the side of the neck. Applying gentle pressure, feel for a pulse as shown for 5 to 10 seconds.