Figure 5-01 Many boating areas are relatively open, and boats may approach from more than one direction, often several at a time. Every skipper must know who has the right-of-way and what signal to give in each situation.
Navigation Rules:
Right-of-Way & Sound Signals
Actions to Take & Signals to Sound to Avoid Collision • Sound Signals Required in “Thick” Weather when Underway or at Anchor • Distress Signals
Most of us have had the experience of walking down a street and meeting another pedestrian headed toward us. We turn to one side to avoid hitting him, only to have him dodge simultaneously to the same side. Then perhaps there’s a quick turn by both in the opposite direction, followed by a collision, or we manage to pass without hitting. To pedestrians on a sidewalk such actions are merely comical, and fairly simple to avoid. Between vessels on the water, they are serious indeed, and boaters need to understand and follow the applicable Navigation Rules to avoid collisions.
Except for marked channels, there are no clearly defined paths for boats to follow. They have an open expanse of water on which to navigate, and their courses often cross the tracks of other vessels on the same waters. The caution needed on the water, even though traffic is much less than on land, is thus as or more important than on sidewalks, streets, and highways.
“Ignorance of the law is no excuse” applies to boating as well as activities on land. Skippers of boats of all sizes have been found liable for substantial criminal and civil penalties when they ignored or violated right-of-way rules. Before paying claims, insurance companies may ask skippers to prove that they operated their craft in accordance with the Navigation Rules.
More important, knowing and obeying the Rules can save your life and the lives of your family and guests on board. Whether you operate a boat 60 feet (18.3 m) in length or a personal watercraft, knowledge of the Navigation Rules is a must.
Rules & Regulations
To prevent collision, carefully considered rules clearly state the duty of the skipper of any vessel encountering another vessel. These rules are of three general classes: the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972 (known as the 72 COLREGS); the 1980 U.S. Inland Navigational Rules; and regulations issued by departments and agencies of the federal government. Most of the latter category are promulgated by “the Secretary of the Department in which the Coast Guard is operating,” or by the Commandant of the Coast Guard, under authority delegated to him by the Secretary. The principal federal regulations are the five annexes to the Inland Rules, including Annex V, Pilot Rules.
Figure 5-02 If every skipper knew the “Rules of the Road” as he should, it would do much to bring calm to what can otherwise be chaotic situations.
State & Local Regulations Both the International and Inland Rules are focused on the prevention of collisions between vessels. They do not cover matters such as “no wake” zones or the operation of watercraft near swimming beaches. These types of regulations are the responsibility of state and local authorities. In general, such special regulations conform to the Inland Rules and Coast Guard regulations, but elaborate on certain minor details. The wide variety of such regulations makes it impossible to consider them here, except to remind all skippers to be alert for them.
Many states have regulations prohibiting boat operation in restricted areas above and below dams. The towing of water-skiers may be restricted in some waters. Boats are often prohibited from operating within a specified distance, usually 100 yards, of craft displaying a state-recognized “diver down” flag. State laws may give public safety vessels displaying the appropriate flashing blue light a right-of-way over other vessels.
Foreign Waters
Some foreign nations have their own set of navigation rules for internal waters. In Canada, these are the Collision Regulations: International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, with Canadian Modifications. Many other countries have no national rules, and in these the COLREGS govern internal as well as external waters.
Sequence of Consideration
The U.S. Inland Navigational Rules will be considered in detail here. They apply on waters shoreward of demarcation lines at the entrances to most, but not all, harbors, bays, rivers, and inlets (see Chapter 2). They thus apply to most recreational boaters in the U.S.
The International Navigation Rules will be discussed in detail only where their provisions differ significantly from the U.S. Inland Rules. As discussed in Chapter 4, the Inland Rules are derived from the International Rules and closely parallel them; the various provisions are matched rule for rule and annex for annex. Many rules are identical, but in a number of instances the content and language has been changed to reflect the generally smaller size of vessels and shorter distances involved in inland waters; in a few places an editorial change has been made for greater clarity.
Annexes I, III, and IV differ from their International Rules counterparts in a few minor ways. International Rules Annex II is included in Inland Rule 26(f). Inland Rules Annex V has no International counterpart.
The consideration of the Navigation Rules in this chapter and Chapter 4 is not complete; it focuses primarily on points of greatest interest to boaters.
Numbered Rules
Both the U.S. Inland Rules and the International Rules consist of major subdivisions; Part A—General, Part B—Steering and Sailing Rules, Part C—Lights and Shapes, Part D—Sound and Light Signals, and Part E—Exemptions. (Part E provides specific temporary and permanent exemptions for grandfathered vessels to permit a smooth transition from the previous requirements for lights and sound signals. Most of these exemptions have now expired.)
Within both sets, the rules are numbered from 1 to 38, with subparagraphs such as (a), (b), (c), and still lower levels indicated by (i), (ii), (iii). Rules that are identical or nearly identical on both sets carry the same numbers, so that parallel numbering can be continued in the rules that follow. (Rule 28 is omitted from the U.S. Inland Rules.)
Indication of References
In this chapter and Chapter 4, numbers and letters shown in brackets are references to the applicable Rule. References to Annexes are indicated by a Roman numeral, as the annexes to both sets of Rules are so designated; specific paragraphs and subparagraphs are noted by numbers and letters as appropriate. These references are shown to facilitate looking up the exact language of the Rules and Annexes in the U.S. Coast Guard publication Navigation Rules and Regulations Handbook.
THE U.S. INLAND RULES
The rules covered in this chapter are in addition to those in Chapter 4. Taken together, they make up the sum of the two sets of Navigation Rules. The term “right-of-way” is not used in the text of the Rules, but it is commonly understood language and will be used in the following discussion.
Definition of Terms
The definitions of the Inland and International rules that were discussed in Chapter 4 are equally applicable in this chapter. Additional definitions follow:
Whistle Any sound-signaling equipment capable of producing the prescribed blasts, and which complies with the specifications in the Annex III. [32(a)]
Short Blast A blast of about one second’s duration.
Prolonged Blast A blast of four to six seconds’ duration. (The term “long blast” is not used in the Navigation Rules.)
The geographic limits of rule applicability to the Great Lakes, the Western Rivers, and specified waters described in Chapter 4 are similarly applicable to this chapter.
“Privileged” & “Burdened” Vessels
For generations, skippers have used the terms BURDENED and PRIVILEGED to define the status of two vessels encountering each other. The privileged vessel is the one that has the right-of-way—the right to proceed unhindered by the other. The burdened vessel is the one that does not have the right-of-way, the one that must take any necessary action to keep out of the way of the privileged vessel.
These terms do not appear in the 1972 International Rules and the 1980 Inland Rules—but the concept remains. Officially, the privileged vessel is now the STAND-ON vessel; the burdened vessel is the GIVE-WAY vessel. (Although these terms are used in the titles of Rules 16 and 17, they are not included in the definitions of either set of Rules.) The new terms were adopted as they were considered to be more descriptive of the required actions. The terms “burdened” and “privileged” continue in use by maritime personnel on an informal basis.
Steering & Sailing Rules
The basic purpose of any set of rules of the nautical road is to prevent collisions (indeed, this is the title of the International Rules). A major subdivision, Part B, termed “Steering and Sailing Rules,” is particularly aimed at that goal, with three subparts covering conduct of vessels in any condition of visibility [Rules 4-10]; when within sight of each other [Rules 11-18]; and when in restricted visibility [Rule 19]. Part C covers lights and shapes; Part D, sound and light signals, emphasizing collision prevention. [Rules 32-37].
Technically, the right-of-way rules do not come into effect between two vessels until the possibility of a collision exists; see Figure 5-03. Stand-on and give-way status are not necessarily established when vessels first sight each other, but rather at the moment when a “risk of collision” develops. Although not an actual rule, a basic principle of collision prevention is that where the depth of the water permits, two vessels should never get so close to each other that the risk of a collision can materialize. A collision between two vessels is almost impossible if each skipper fully and properly obeys the Navigation Rules.
Figure 5-03 In a crossing situation, keep a check on the relative bearing of the other craft. To be safe, there should be a distinct change in this angle, forward or aft, as the boat approaches you; a constant or only slowly changing bearing indicates a risk of collision.
Determining Risk of Collision
Every vessel shall use all available means appropriate to the prevailing conditions to determine if risk of collision exists. If there is any doubt, such risk shall be deemed to exist. [7(a)]
Every vessel must at all times maintain a proper watch by sight and hearing, as well as all available means appropriate in the prevailing conditions so as to make a full appraisal of the situation and of the risk of collision. [5]
An excellent method (and prescribed by the Rules) of determining whether your boat is on a collision course with another is to watch the compass bearing of the other vessel; see Figure 5-04. If this bearing does not change appreciably, either forward or astern, a risk of collision exists. [7(d)] The Navigation Rules then apply, and appropriate action must be taken.
Figure 5-04 These sketches illustrate a typical developing situation. Even without the use of a compass, another vessel can be “eyeballed.” On first sighting (A), this freighter gives no clue as to its speed. The small-boat skipper lines it up with the windshield and the corner of the companionway.
In B, the ship seems to be falling behind the bearing line. If the small boat has kept a constant speed and heading since the first sighting, it will pass ahead of the freighter.
In C, however, the ship has pulled ahead of the bearing line, and collision is possible. The small boat is actually the stand-on, but it would be extremely risky and foolish to try and claim that right.
In D, a collision appears probable. The small craft should have altered course, speed, or both in order to prevent this situation from occurring. Survivors of collisions between ships and boats are nearly always those persons who are on the ship.
Boaters are cautioned, however, against presuming there is no risk when there is an appreciable change in bearing. Each situation must be considered in light of its own conditions. [7(d)]
In reduced visibility, you must make proper use of any operational radar equipment on board, including long-range scanning, and of radar plotting or equivalent systematic observation of detected objects. [7(b)]
Do not make assumptions on the basis of scanty information, especially scanty radar information. [7(c)]
Safe Speed
Clearly, the safe speed for a motorboat operating on a little-traveled waterway in the middle of a week may be completely different than the safe speed for the same boat in a crowded harbor on the Fourth of July weekend. The prevailing circumstances and conditions are quite different, and that’s just what the Rules want you to take into account. Every vessel must proceed at a safe speed at all times.[6]
Rule 6(a) lists specific factors to be considered in determining a “safe speed,” including but not limited to:
• The state of visibility;
• Traffic density, including concentration of fishing or other vessels;
• Your vessel’s maneuverability, with special reference to stopping distance and turning ability;
• At night, the presence of background lights, such as those from shore or from the backscatter of your vessel’s own lights;
• The state of wind, sea, current, and the proximity of navigational hazards;
• The vessel’s draft in relation to the available depth of water.
Rule 6(b) provides additional guidance for determining a safe speed for a ship or boat fitted with an operational radar.
Actions to Avoid Collision
The Rules specifically require that any action taken to avoid collision, if the circumstances allow, will be positive, made in ample time, and in keeping with good seamanship. Any change of course or speed should be large enough to be readily apparent to the other vessel visually or by radar; avoid a series of small changes. Your judgment—your “seaman’s eye”—may tell you that only a slight change will be sufficient, but that change might well go undetected and leave the other skipper in doubt; see Figure 5-05. With some boats, particularly those with displacement hulls, a change of course is preferable to a change in speed, as the latter is less likely to be noticed.
The action taken must be sufficient to result in passing at a safe distance; continue to check its effectiveness until the other vessel is clear. If you have to, you must slow down or take all way off by stopping or reversing.[8]
Figure 5-05 All changes of course in the presence of another vessel should be so pronounced and definite that they will be noticed and properly evaluated by the other skipper. Slight changes may fail to make your intentions clear. Changes in speed are often less noticeable than changes in course.
Basic Responsibilities
Two Navigation Rules are of such primary importance that every skipper should know them by heart. These are “the rule of good seamanship,” and “the general prudential rule.”
The Rule of Good Seamanship
Rule 2(a) is the broad, summing-up RULE OF GOOD SEAMANSHIP. It provides that nothing in the Rules shall exonerate any vessel, or its owner, master, or crew, from the consequences of failing to comply with the Rules, or of neglecting any precaution that may be required either by the ordinary practice of seamen or by the special circumstances of the case. Whatever you can do to avoid a collision, you must do!
The General Prudential Rule
Rule 2(b) is often termed the GENERAL PRUDENTIAL RULE and is of great importance due to its wide applicability. In obeying and construing the Rules of the Road, due regard must be given to all dangers of navigation and collision, and to any special circumstances, including the limitation of the vessels, that may render a departure from the Rules necessary to avoid immediate danger. The Rules must not be literally, blindly followed into a collision.
Interpretation of “Dangers” Courts have placed considerable emphasis on the word “dangers” of Rule 2(b) in rendering their decisions. The basic principle is that the Rules must not be abandoned whenever perceptible risk of collision exists, but only when imperatively required by special circumstances, as when the actions of one vessel alone will not avoid a collision.
Lookouts
Every vessel must at all times maintain a proper lookout by sight and hearing, as well as by all other available and appropriate means, to keep fully appraised of the situation and any risk of collision.[5] This lookout must be all around—360°.
The need for a proper lookout is often taken too lightly on small boats. In most situations, a helmsman will satisfy this need, but he must be qualified, alert, have no other responsibilities, and be able to see in all directions; see Figure 5-06. The use of an automatic steering mechanism (an “autopilot”; see Chapter 16) is not justification for the absence of a human helmsman at the controls, continuously observing and ready to take over immediately if needed. The use of radar at night or in fog does not justify the absence of an additional person on deck, stationed outside and usually forward, where he can hear as well as see.
Figure 5-06 It is the responsibility of the skipper of a boat of any size that a proper lookout is maintained at all times. Failure to do this raises serious questions of liability in case of an accident.
The noise level of most motorboats can make the helmsman ineffective as a listening watch.
The Rules do not prohibit operating with a short-handed crew or even boating single-handed for a reasonable length of time. It is not the intent of Rule 5 to require additional personnel forward if none is needed for safety. The burden of proof, however, will continue to be on each vessel involved in a collision to establish that a proper lookout could not have prevented the accident.
General Right-of-Way Provisions
Except for vessels specifically designated otherwise—such as vessels in narrow channels and Traffic Separation Schemes and those overtaking—vessels may be “ranked” for right-of-way as follows:
• Vessels not under command
• Vessels restricted in ability to maneuver
• Vessels engaged in fishing
• Sailing vessels
• Power-driven vessels
Each type of vessel in this list must yield right-of-way to vessels listed higher, and will be stand-on with respect to those lower on the list. [18] Rules 9, 10, and 13 cover the exceptions.
Caution Required
Be aware that not all skippers know the Rules! Be prepared to take whatever steps are necessary to avoid collision, even if technically your boat is the stand-on vessel.
Actions by the Give-way Vessel
Actions by a vessel that is required by the Rules to keep out of the way of another vessel (a give-way vessel) are simple and straightforward: “So far as is possible, take early and substantial action to keep well clear.” [16]
Actions by the Stand-on Vessel The vessel that has the right-of-way must maintain its course and speed, at least initially. [17] But the stand-on vessel is never allowed to proceed blindly into a collision. The best way to think of the stand-on vessel’s responsibility is as a threestage action:
Stage One The approaching vessel on a collision course is still some distance away. The stand-on vessel must at this time keep its course and speed to allow the other vessel full opportunity to maneuver. [17(a)(i)]
Stage Two The other vessel, which is required to give way, continues approaching and is getting uncomfortably close. It appears that it does not realize the situation and is not intending to maneuver. At this point, the stand-on vessel may maneuver to avoid a collision. [17(a)(ii)] If the stand-on vessel chooses to maneuver, however, it must not alter course to port for a vessel on its own port side. [17(c)]
Stage Three The separation between the vessels continues to decrease and the situation becomes one in which no action by the give-way vessel can avoid a collision. At this point, the stand-on vessel is required to take any action that is necessary to avoid a collision. [17(b)]
It should be noted that Rule 17 does not relieve the give-way vessel of its obligation to keep out of the way of the stand-on vessel.
Sound Signals
Sound signals are to be used only when vessels are in sight of each other and are meeting or crossing at a distance within half a mile of each other. [34] These signals must never be used in fog or other conditions of reduced visibility; where the vessels are not visible to each other by eye, only the fog signals of Rule 35 may be sounded at such a time.
Figure 5-07 The danger signal is five (or more) short blasts sounded rapidly. It is used when danger is evident or there is doubt about another vessel’s actions or intentions. Here, the boat on the right is backing into danger.
Danger Signal
In any situation where two vessels are approaching each other, if one fails to understand the actions or intentions of the other, or if not sure that sufficient action is being taken by the other to avoid collision, the vessel in doubt must give the DANGER SIGNAL—five or more short and rapid blasts on its whistle; see Figure 5-07. [34(d)]
A skipper also uses this signal to indicate that he considers the actions of the other vessel dangerous to either vessel—such as a negative reply to a proposal to pass in a certain manner.
Giving a danger signal does not relieve a vessel of its obligations or responsibilities under any rule.
Although not specifically covered in the Rules, a careful skipper who either hears or sounds a danger signal will at once slow or stop his vessel until the situation is clarified for all concerned.
Equipment for Sound Signals
The term “whistle” dates back to the beginning of steam propulsion for ships. Today, the Navigation Rules accept not only a steam whistle but also an air horn or electric horn to make the required signals. Annex III of the Rules specifies the tone of the whistle for various sizes of vessels—the smaller the vessel, the higher the pitch of the whistle or horn. A vessel pushing another vessel or vessels may sound a whistle whose characteristics are determined by the combined length of the tug and tow.
A vessel 20 meters (65.6 ft) or more in length must have a WHISTLE and a BELL; a vessel of 100 meters (328.1 ft) or more in length must also have a GONG, the tone and sound of which cannot be confused with those of the bell. [33(a)]
A vessel less than 12 meters (39.4 ft) in length need not carry the sound-signaling equipment required on larger vessels, but if it does not, it must have “some other means of making an efficient sound signal.” [33(b)] There are no smallboat requirements for range (1/2 mile would be a reasonable minimum) or source of power—only for effectiveness—and sailboats have the same requirements as motorboats. (Some states do have requirements for sound equipment on smaller vessels.)
For vessels over 12 meters (39.4 ft) in length, however, Annex III contains detailed specifications for sound-signaling equipment, including whistle tones and ranges of audibility. Higher pitched tones are used for smaller vessels; for those of less than 75 meters (246.1 ft) length, the band of frequencies is 250 to 700 Hz. Required ranges of audibility gradually increase, from 0.5 mile for vessels at least 12 but less than 20 meters (39.4 to 65.6 ft) in length, to 2 miles for vessels longer than 200 meters (656.2 ft); all distances are coordinated with specific sound pressure levels (loudness). [III-86.01] A vessel normally used for pushing ahead or towing alongside may carry a whistle with characteristics matched to the length of the longest towed-and-towing combination customarily operated, and may use it even when operating singly. [III-86.01(g)] The annex specifies directional properties and positioning for whistles, and a limitation on sound pressure level at the vessel’s own “listening posts” (lookout or helm position). [III-86.01(d) and 86.01(e)]
All bells and gongs must be made of corrosion-resistant material and be designed to give a clear tone. Specifications for bells and gongs include different sizes for smaller and larger vessels and a minimum sound-pressure level. Bells on vessels 20 meters (65.6 ft) or more in length must be at least 300 mm (11.8 inches) in diameter. The mass of the striker for any size of bell must not be less than 3 percent of the mass of that bell. [III-86.02]
The bell or gong or both on a vessel may be replaced by “other equipment” (usually electronic) having the same sound characteristics, provided that the prescribed signals can always be sounded manually as well. [33(a)]
Maneuvering Lights
Whistle signals may be supplemented by a light signal synchronized with the whistle; the flashes have the same significance as the whistle blasts. This is a single all-round light, white or yellow, visible for at least two miles regardless of the size of the vessel. [34(b)] This MANEUVERING LIGHT must be placed in the same vertical plane as the masthead light(s), at least 0.5 meter (19.7 in) above the forward masthead light, and at least 0.5 meter (19.7 in) above or below the after masthead light. If a vessel carries only one masthead light, as will be the case for nearly all small craft, the maneuvering light can be carried where it can best be seen, but not less than 0.5 meter (19.7 in) vertically separated from the masthead light. Remember that a maneuvering light is an all-round light and should not be significantly obscured in any direction. [I-84.18]
“THE RULE OF TONNAGE”
The Inland and International Navigation Rules must be interpreted with common sense. A collision between a large steel ship and a fiberglass boat of almost any size will not result in equal damage and casualties on both vessels. This harsh reality leads to the very unofficial “Rule of Tonnage” that says that small, lightweight craft should always avoid close-quarters situations with big ships of heavy tonnage. In the language of the Rules, in many cases all vessels are equal, but in actuality “some are more equal than others.”
The speed of a large ship first seen at a distance can be difficult to judge, particularly when viewed head-on. Large tankers and containerships often travel at four or more times the speed of a sailboat or trawler-type powerboat. A dot on the horizon can become a close-quarters situation in less than 15 minutes. The time between first sighting and collision can shrink to a minute or less in reduced visibility. Small craft must look out all around the horizon, not just ahead.
Installing larger, brighter navigation lights greatly improves the possibility of a small boat being seen. Flags, sails, and other equipment on board must never be allowed to obscure navigation lights, especially a sternlight.
Large vessels use radar for collision avoidance, but this is no guarantee that a nonmetallic boat will be visible on the screen. Sea clutter and other natural phenomena can prevent the echo from a small boat being detected. A radar reflector, mounted high and in the “catch-rain” orientation, increases the size of the radar echo returned to the ship, making the craft more visible on the display on the ship’s bridge.
A boat can make itself more visible at night by shining a light on its deck or cabin, or onto its sails. If the approach of a large ship becomes uncomfortable, an attempt to communicate should be made on VHF Channel 13 or 16 (or 70 using DSC). Finally, small craft should always consider the advisability of making major course changes to avoid a close-quarters situation with a large ship. Sailboats should start their auxiliary engine in preparation for motoring out of harm’s way.
Rules for Power-Driven Vessels Underway
The Navigation Rules recognize three types of encounters between two approaching vessels—meeting, crossing, and overtaking; see Figure 5-08. The rules governing right-of-way, the whistle signals to be given, and actions to be taken with regard to course and speed changes, are given below for power-driven vessels underway. Remember that a boat being propelled by both sails and machinery is considered in the Navigation Rules as a power-driven vessel.
Figure 5-08 The Navigation Rules recognize three types of encounters. The dark blue boat here is being overtaken by one boat and crossed by another while it meets a third. Specific provisions of the Rules govern the actions taken and signals given by vessels in each of these situations.
Meeting Situation
When two power-driven vessels are approaching one another head-on, or nearly head-on, this is a MEETING SITUATION. In this situation, unless otherwise agreed, each should pass on the port side of the other. [14(a)] Neither vessel has the right-of-way over the other, and both must alter course to star-board, if necessary, to provide sufficient clearance for safe passage; see Figure 5-09. This is exactly the same, it will be noted, as for two cars meeting on a narrow road. This is colloquially referred to as a “port-to-port” or a “one whistle” passing.
Figure 5-09 In a typical meeting situation, both vessels alter course to starboard and pass port-to-port. Either can signal first with one short blast; neither has the right-of-way. On inland waters only, a starboard-to-starboard passing can be proposed by either boat with two short blasts, but should not be executed until the other boat responds in kind.
For the rule of the meeting situation to apply, two requirements must be met: the vessels must be meeting in such a manner as to involve risk of collision, and they must be on reciprocal or nearly reciprocal courses. Such a situation is deemed to exist by day when a vessel sees the other ahead or nearly ahead, and by night when it can see the masthead lights of the other in a line or nearly in a line, or sees both sidelights. [14(b)] Court interpretations and decisions over the years have established an arc of one point (11.25°), with half on either side, as the practical boundaries of the zone within which vessels will be considered as meeting each other.
This rule does not apply to two vessels that will, if both keep on their respective courses without change of heading or speed, pass clear of each other.
When a vessel has any doubt that a meeting situation exists [14(c)], it must assume the situation does exist and act accordingly; that is, change course to starboard, slow down, or stop.
In a winding channel, a vessel may first sight the other at an oblique angle rather than “head on, or nearly head on.” Nevertheless, the situation is to be regarded as a meeting situation since they will be head on or nearly head on when the actual passing occurs. Each should keep to its own right side of the channel and neither has the right-of-way over the other.
Exception A power-driven vessel operating on the Great Lakes, the Western Rivers, or other waters designated by the Secretary, and proceeding downbound with the current, has the right-of-way over an upbound vessel. The downbound vessel proposes the manner of passing and initiates the whistle signals. [14(d)] In other waters where there is a significant current, although not required by the Rules, it is customary for a vessel proceeding against the current to yield to one traveling with the current.
Signals When power-driven vessels are within sight of each other and meeting at a distance of a half-mile or less, each vessel must sound the whistle as follows:
One short blast, meaning “I intend to leave you on my port side.”
Two short blasts, meaning “I intend to leave you on my starboard side.”
Three short blasts, meaning “I am operating astern propulsion” (engines in reverse gear, but it is not necessary that the vessel be moving astern).
Upon hearing the one- or two-short-blast signal from the other, a vessel will, if in agreement, sound the same signal and do what is necessary to effect a safe passage. If it doubts the safety of the proposed maneuver, it must sound the danger signal of five or more short, rapid blasts and take appropriate precautionary action until a safe passage agreement is made. [34(a)] The rule does not state which vessel should signal first—both boats are on an equal basis, and either can make the first signal to the other.
Note that a vessel should never answer a oneblast signal with two blasts, nor a two-blast signal with one blast. This is known as CROSS SIGNALS and can only lead to confusion and a hazardous situation.
When one vessel sounds the danger signal in a meeting situation, both vessels should immediately stop or reduce their forward speed to bare steerageway. [8(e)] Neither vessel should attempt to proceed or pass until agreement is reached through the exchange of the same whistle signal, either one short blast or two.
Crossing Situation
When two power-driven vessels are meeting. but not head-on or nearly so—i.e., when each has the other more than 10° or so off its bow but forward of a direction 22.5° abaft the beam—a CROSSING SITUATION exists.
When two power-driven vessels are crossing so as to involve risk of collision, the vessel that has the other on its own starboard side must avoid crossing ahead of and must keep out of the way of the other. [15] See Figure 5-10.
Figure 5-10 When two power-driven vessels encounter each other not in a meeting situation but with each having the other forward of a direction 22.5° abaft the beam, the boats are crossing. The vessel that has the other on its starboard side is the give-way (burdened, colored dark blue) vessel and must take action to avoid collision. It can slow down, stop, or turn to starboard (but never to port!). The stand-on (privileged) vessel should maintain course and speed unless the other vessel fails to take suitable action.
This leads to the unofficial definition of a boat’s DANGER ZONE—a concept not explicitly stated in the Navigation Rules, but one very valuable for safety. This is the arc from dead ahead to 22.5° abaft the starboard beam; see illustration in sidebar “The Danger Zone.” If you see another vessel within this danger zone, it most likely is the stand-on (privileged) vessel; yours is the give-way (burdened) vessel, and you must change course or speed to avoid collision.
Exceptions On all waters, a vessel must not cross a narrow channel or fairway in such a way as to impede the progress of a vessel that can only navigate safely within that channel or fairway. The vessel in the channel shall use the danger signal if it is in doubt as to the intention of the crossing vessel.[9(d)]
Further, on the Great Lakes, the Western Rivers, and any other waters specified by the Secretary, a vessel crossing a river must keep clear of a power-driven vessel proceeding up or down that river. [15(b)] This situation is analogous to a road intersection on land, where the side street has a “Stop” sign to prevent interference with traffic on the main street.
Signals The Inland Rules require whistle signals in both meeting and crossing situations. If the vessels are in sight of each other and will pass within a distance of a half-mile [34(a)], one, two, or three short blasts are used with the same meanings as described above for meeting situations. Again, the Rules do not state which vessel should signal first, but by custom it is most often the vessel that is privileged or believes itself to be privileged. A one- or two-short-blast signal is answered with the same number of blasts if the other vessel is in agreement and will take the steps necessary to effect a safe passing. The danger signal of five or more short, rapid blasts is used in the same way to indicate doubt in the safety of the actions taken or in the signaled intentions of the other vessel.
A maneuvering light may show one, two, three, or five or more flashes synchronized with the whistle blasts.
Note that this rule applies only if there is risk of collision. If two power-driven vessels will cross free and clear of each other, neither is the stand-on or give-way vessel, and thus whistle signals are inappropriate. In case of doubt, however, the safe procedure is to assume that the intentions of each are not known to the other.
Overtaking Situation
A power-driven or sail vessel is considered to be OVERTAKING when it is coming up on another from a direction of more than 22.5° abaft either beam of the other vessel, and making greater speed so as to close the distance between them; see Figure 5-11. At night, this situation exists when the vessel astern cannot see either of the sidelights of the vessel ahead. By day, the overtaking vessel cannot always know with certainty whether it is forward or abaft a direction 22.5° abaft the other vessel’s beam; if in doubt, it should assume that it is an overtaking vessel. [13(b) and (c)]
Figure 5-11 Any vessel approaching another from more than 22.5° abaft the other’s beam, either side, is overtaking. As such it must keep out of the way of the vessel being overtaken. This rule applies even to a sailboat overtaking a motorboat. The overtaking boat remains in the give-way status for the remainder of the encounter and must keep clear until fully past, even though this takes it through the other vessel’s danger zone.
Notwithstanding any other provision in the Navigation Rules, every vessel overtaking another must keep out of the way of the overtaken vessel. The overtaking vessel is give-way; the overtaken vessel is stand-on. [13(a)]
The Rules state specifically that once a vessel is in an overtaking status, it remains so for the remainder of the encounter; no subsequent alteration of the bearing between the two vessels will serve to make the overtaking vessel a crossing vessel within the meaning of the Rules, or relieve it of its duty to keep clear of the overtaken vessel until it is finally past and clear. In other words, should the overtaking vessel come up on the starboard side of the overtaken vessel and move into its danger zone, the overtaking vessel does not by this movement become the stand-on vessel with the right-of-way. [13(d)]
Signals If the overtaking vessel desires to pass on the port side of the vessel ahead—as would be normal if the slower vessel were keeping to the right side of a channel (see Figure 5-12, left)—it must sound a two-short-blast signal. If the stand-on vessel agrees with such a passing, it should immediately sound the same signal. The faster vessel then directs its course to port and passes as proposed and agreed.
Should the vessel astern desire to pass on the other’s starboard side—not customary or preferred, but legally permissible (see Figure 5-12, center)—it must sound a one-short-blast signal, which is returned in kind by the stand-on vessel if it consents. [34(c) and 9(e)]
If in either of the above situations the vessel ahead does not consider that the proposed passing can take place safely, it must immediately sound the danger signal of five or more short, rapid blasts. (The danger signal should also be sounded if the overtaking boat attempts an unsafe passing without first giving a whistle signal of its intentions.)
Figure 5-12 The overtaking boat (give-way, colored dark blue) signals first: two blasts for “I intend to overtake you on your port side” (the normal method); one blast for “I intend to overtake you on your starboard side” (legal but less desirable). Note that the wording differs from that used with the meeting and crossing signals, found in Chapter 5 [34(c)(i)]. If the signaled action is safe, the overtaken boat replies with the same signal. If it is not safe, that boat sounds the danger signal, five or more short blasts.
An overtaking vessel receiving a danger signal in reply to its stated intention to pass should immediately cease all actions related to passing, and reduce speed so as to close no further on the overtaken vessel; see Figure 5-12, right. No attempt should be made to pass until the proper signals have been given and answered. Although not provided for in the Rules, it is reasonable for a stand-on vessel to give the danger signal, pause, and then give the other passing signal to the giveway vessel—saying in effect, “The side that you proposed is unsafe, but the other is OK.” This action by the stand-on vessel is not prescribed, but it is often logical because the leading vessel has a better view of the conditions ahead.
As in the meeting situation, cross signals—answering one blast with two or two blasts with one—make for an unsafe situation. Answer a signal only with the signal received or with the danger signal.
Even though the slower vessel ahead is privileged, it must never attempt to cross the bow or crowd the course of the passing vessel.
Although the overtaken (stand-on) vessel is required by Rule 17(a)(i) to keep its course and speed, it is often desirable in narrow channels or confined waterways for a boat to slow down so that the passing craft can likewise slow and thus pass with less wake. This action is a departure from the basic Rules, but it is covered by the language in Rule 9(e)(i) that the overtaken vessel may “take steps to permit safe passing.” It is also covered by Rule 2(b).
THE DANGER ZONE
A power-driven vessel of any size has a so-called “danger zone” from dead ahead to 22.5° abaft its starboard beam see right. It must give way to any crossing vessel that approaches within this zone. The danger zone is a concept that is implicit—although not specifically mentioned—in the Navigation Rules.
Note that the danger zone of the give-way vessel has the same arc of visibility as its green sidelight. Thus the stand-on vessel sees a “go” light from the other vessel. Conversely, the give-way vessel sees the red (“stop”) light of the stand-on vessel—a very logical situation!
Most often, altering course to starboard is the best action for the give-way vessel to keep clear; this allows that vessel to pass safely astern of the other. Slowing down or stopping are other options. The give-way vessel should not turn to port for a vessel forward of its beam.
The danger zone is not, however, applicable in all crossing situations. On the Great Lakes, the Western Rivers, and other specified waters, a power-driven vessel going upriver or down does not have to yield to a vessel in its danger zone if that other vessel is crossing the river. [15(b)]
A somewhat similar exception applies in all waters to small vessels crossing a narrow channel or fairway. [9(b)]
The “danger zone” is a concept implicit in the Navigation Rules and should be firmly understood by every boater.
Use of Radio Communications
The Inland Rules state that vessels that have reached agreement in a meeting, crossing, or overtaking situation by using radio (Channel 13 in most areas, but 67 on the lower Mississippi River) need not sound whistle signals, but may do so. If agreement is not reached, then whistle signals must be exchanged “in a timely manner,” and these will govern the actions taken. [34(h)] The use of radio is highly desirable as it permits the exchange of so much more information than can be communicated by simple whistle blasts; it should be the preferred means of signaling in all passing situations.
Whether by whistle or by radio, signals should always be exchanged. In the event of a collision, a failure to do so may be taken into account in the determination of liability.
Narrow Channels
A vessel in a narrow channel must keep to the right and as close to the outer limit of the channel as is safe and practicable. [9(a)(i)] This places a burden on a vessel on the left side to (1) be there only if it must, and (2) establish agreement for a starboard-to-starboard passage.
Exception On the Great Lakes, the Western Rivers, and any other waters specified by the Secretary, a power-driven vessel operating in a narrow channel or fairway and proceeding downbound with a following current has the right-of-way over an upbound vessel and shall initiate maneuvering signals as appropriate. The vessel proceeding upbound against the current must hold as necessary to permit safe passing. [9(a)(ii)] This does not apply in tidal waters where there might be doubt as to the direction of the current, but by common courtesy a vessel proceeding against the current yields to the other.
Rounding Bends in a Channel
A special sound signal is provided for a situation in which a vessel approaches a bend or channel area where other vessels may be unseen because of an obstruction such as the banks, vegetation, or structures. In this situation the vessel sounds the “blind bend signal” of one prolonged blast. This signal must be answered with one prolonged blast by any approaching vessel within hearing. [34(e)] If such an answer is received, normal whistle signals must be exchanged when the vessels come within sight of one another; see Figure 5-13. If no reply to its signal is heard, the vessel may consider the channel ahead to be clear. All vessels in such situations must be navigated “with particular alertness and caution.” [9(f)]
In each such situation, a vessel with limited maneuverability or one requiring most of the channel width will often make a “security call” on VHF Channel 13 or 16, or both, to announce its position and direction of travel. Such calls should be answered by any vessels approaching the area.
Figure 5-13 When a vessel is approaching a bend in a river where vessels coming from the other direction cannot be seen, it should sound a special “blind bend signal” of one prolonged (4 to 6 seconds) blast. A second vessel approaching from the other direction answers with the same signal, and both vessels proceed with due caution, exchanging normal signals when within sight of each other.
Leaving a Berth
A power-driven vessel leaving a dock or berth must sound a warning signal of one prolonged blast. [34(g)] The same signal should be given by a boat exiting a side canal into a river or waterway.
Note that although it is not explicitly so stated in the Navigation Rules, it may be inferred that a boat just emerging from a slip or berth does not have the right-of-way over another vessel passing in the channel or nearby open water, even though it is in the other’s danger zone—its stand-on status in a crossing situation is not established until it is “fully in sight.”
Don’t Impede Other Vessels
A vessel less than 20 meters (65.6 ft) in length, or a sailing vessel, must not impede the passage of a vessel that can navigate safely only within a narrow channel or fairway. [9(b)]
A vessel engaged in fishing must not impede the passage of any other vessel navigating within a narrow channel or fairway. [9(c)]
A vessel must not cross a narrow channel or fairway in such a manner as to impede the progress of a vessel that must stay within that channel or fairway. The latter vessel must use the danger signal if there is doubt about the intentions of the crossing vessel. [9(d)]
If the circumstances allow, a vessel must not anchor in a narrow channel. [9(g)]
Ferry Boats
Although there are no express provisions in the Inland Rules that give special privileges to ferry boats, the courts have repeatedly ruled that ferries are entitled to a reasonable degree of freedom of entrance to and exit from their slips.
Boats should avoid passing unnecessarily close to piers, wharves, etc., where they may be caught unawares by movements of other vessels.
Rules for Sailing Vessels Underway
The provisions of Inland Rule 12, which are stated below, apply only to situations involving two sailing vessels; neither may be under power, or a combination of sail and power.
When two sailing vessels are approaching one another so as to involve risk of collision, one of them must keep out of the way of the other in accordance with the following conditions:
• When each has the wind on a different side, the vessel with the wind on its port side must keep out of the way of the other; see Figure 5-14. [12(a)(i)]
Figure 5-14 Sailboats meeting may be on opposite tacks—one with the wind to starboard, the other with the wind to port. The boat with the wind to starboard is on a starboard tack and is the stand-on vessel, having right-of-way. The boat (colored dark blue) with the wind to port is the give-way vessel. If in doubt, a skipper should assume that his boat does not have the right-of-way.
• When both have the wind on the same side, the vessel to windward must keep out of the way of the vessel that is to leeward; see Figure 5-15. [12(a)(ii)]
Figure 5-15 When two sailboats meet on the same tack (both with the wind on the same side), one will be to windward of the other—in the direction from which the wind is blowing. This is the windward boat (give-way, colored dark blue), which must keep clear of the leeward boat (stand-on). A leeward boat might have its wind blocked and be hampered in its ability to maneuver.
• If a vessel with the wind on its port side sees a vessel to windward and cannot determine with certainty whether the other vessel has the wind on its port or starboard side, it must keep out of the way of that vessel. [12(a)(iii)]
For the purpose of Rule 12, the windward side is the side opposite that on which the mainsail is carried (or in the case of a square-rigged vessel, the side opposite that on which the largest fore-and-aft sail is carried). [12(b)]
Signals Sound signals are not required in passing situations between two sailing vessels. Note, however, that sailing vessels are required to sound all reduced visibility (“fog”) signals, whether on a whistle, horn, or bell.
Encounters Between Sailing & Power Vessels
In general, a sailing vessel has the right-of-way over a vessel propelled by machinery or by both sail and machinery. The power-driven vessel must keep out of the way of the sailing vessel. [18(a)(iv)] Passing signals are not required but are not prohibited; if a powerboat signals a sailboat, it should not expect a reply.
Figure 5-16 In an encounter between a sailboat and one driven by power, the powerboat (give-way, colored dark blue above) must keep out of the way of the sailing craft. However, if the sailboat is overtaking a powerboat—an unlikely but possible situation—the sailboat is the give-way vessel.
There are, however, some exceptions, and they should be thoroughly understood. Should a sailing vessel overtake a power-driven vessel, the overtaking situation rule prevails, and the sailing vessel is the give-way one, regardless of the means of propulsion.[13]
Likewise, a sailing vessel is not the stand-on vessel in an encounter with certain vessels engaged in fishing (but this does not include trolling), a vessel not under command, or a vessel restricted in its ability to maneuver; see Figure 5-17. [18(b)]
Figure 5-17 A sailboat must keep clear of fishing vessels, vessels restricted in ability to maneuver, and vessels that cannot navigate safely outside the channel. The sailboat above is the give-way vessel.
Vessel Traffic Service
A VESSEL TRAFFIC SERVICE (VTS) is established by U.S. Coast Guard regulations to provide mariners with information relating to the safe navigation of a congested waterway or area of special hazards. Normally advisory only, under certain circumstances a VTS may issue directions to control the movement of vessels in order to minimize the risk of collisions or damage to property or the environment. The master or person directing the movement of the vessel remains at all times responsible for compliance with the applicable Navigation Rules.
A VTS consists of a system of regulations, communications, and monitoring facilities established at selected ports and confined waterways to provide active position monitoring, collision avoidance services, and navigational advice. For each VTS area, a set of reporting-in points and precautionary areas are established. In most locations, vessels report their position, speed, and other information to a VESSEL TRAFFIC CENTER (VTC) on a designated VHF radio channel. The VTC monitors conditions in the area with one or more remote radar sites, and in some cases, remote TV cameras. Some VTS are voluntary, but most are compulsory for specified classes of vessels when navigating: all power-driven vessels over 40 meters (131 ft), all towing vessels over 8 meters (26 ft), and all vessels certificated for 50 or more passengers when engaged in trade. In some ports, vessels at anchor are required to monitor a separate designated channel.
Recreational boats are not normally subject to VTS regulations but should be aware of the restrictions placed on the movements of larger vessels. They may monitor the VTS radio channel, but should not transmit.
Automatic Vessel Identification An AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AIS), where established and for ships so equipped, provides for the continuous transmission of a vessel’s movement to a VTC and to other ships with equipment to receive and display such information. A GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) receiver supplies position, course, and speed data to a radio that then transmits it along with other information such as type of vessel, call sign, etc., digitally on a designated VHF channel. The system is capable of handling more than 2,000 messages per minute, with updates as often as every two seconds. AIS is operational on all SOLAS vessels and may be used on recreational vessels (see Chapter 20).
Conduct in Restricted Visibility
Fog is one cause of restricted visibility, but not the only one. Others include heavy rain or snow, sandstorms, and even dense smoke from on shore. Rule 19 applies to vessels that are not in sight of each other yet are navigating in or near areas of restricted visibility. They must proceed at a “safe speed adapted to the prevailing circumstances and conditions.” [19(b)] The Rules make no reference to a specific speed that would be considered “safe.” This is left for the skipper of each vessel to decide, but the obvious intent of Rule 6, “Safe Speed,” is that vessels should slow down. There is no mention of the old adage of “being able to stop in half the distance of visibility,” but that does make good sense. If both vessels followed this procedure, they would not collide. The use of radar is not a justification for failing to operate at a safe speed, nor is it an excuse for not posting appropriate lookouts. Each skipper must consider Rule 6 carefully to determine the application of all factors to the particular situation at hand.
Vessels must also have due regard for the steering and sailing rules that prevail under all conditions of visibility. [19(c)]
Close-Quarters Situations
When the fog signal of another vessel appears to come from forward of your beam, you are required to reduce speed to bare steerageway. If necessary, the boat hearing the signal must take all way off (stop dead) and “in any event, navigate with extreme caution until danger of collision is over.” The same requirement to slow down or stop applies to any boat that knows it is in close quarters with another vessel, even if it has not heard a fog signal.[19(e)]
How “close” is close-quarters? The Rules make no statement on this question. On the high seas, this distance is generally regarded as about 2 nautical miles, or the audible range of the typical ship’s fog signal.
It is important to note that it can be very difficult to tell where a sound signal is coming from in fog, and it is easy to be fooled. Additional lookouts should be posted and instructed to both look and listen. Never alter course until the position of the other vessel is known with reasonable certainty. If radar is available, it must be used.
TAKING ALL WAY OFF
The following excerpt is taken from Cockroft & Lameijer’s A Guide to the Collision Avoidance Rules:
The courts have held that a vessel operating without radar in restricted visibility should reverse engines to take all way off in the following instances:
• A fog signal is heard for the first time in close proximity.
• A fog signal is heard dead ahead.
• A fog signal appears to be a narrowing beam that is moving toward the bow.
• Another vessel is seen looming out of the fog, but its course cannot be determined.
• A sailboat’s fog signal is heard from forward of the beam.
• A fog signal is heard from a vessel at anchor and the tide is setting toward it.
There are many other situations in which taking all way off is indicated. When this is done, however, it should be kept in mind that the sound of the engines reversing may block out further fog signals from other vessels.
Engine Availability
Whenever visibility is restricted, a power-driven vessel must have its engines ready for immediate maneuver. [19(b)] The same advice makes good sense for sailboats with auxiliary power but is not required by the Rules.
IF COLLISION IS UNAVOIDABLE
It’s not a happy thought, but the rule of thumb is this:
• Stop as quickly as possible and face the danger. If there’s any doubt on which side a vessel approaching directly and at a relatively high speed may attempt to pass, present as small a target as possible. The effects of a collision will be much less if the impact is taken end-on rather than broadside.
Using Radar Information
Vessels that have radar on board must use it properly, including plotting or equivalent systematic observation of detected objects to obtain early warning of a risk of collision, but most especially in restricted visibility. [7(b)] If a close-quarters situation with another vessel is detected by radar alone, the vessel using radar must take action to avoid the risk of collision in ample time—but certain types of actions must be avoided.
• An alteration of course to port for a vessel forward of the beam, other than a vessel being overtaken. [19(d)(i)]
• An alteration of course toward a vessel abeam or abaft the beam. [19(d)(ii)]
Any action to avoid risk of collision in restricted visibility should be monitored to ensure that a new risk does not develop. Lookouts must be posted and the radar observed continuously with plotting or equivalent systematic observation of detected objects. [7(b)]
Sound Signals in Restricted Visibility
Rule 35 prescribes sound signals to be given by different types of vessels in various conditions when in or near an area of restricted visibility. These are often termed “fog signals,” but they apply equally in any of the conditions included in the definition of restricted visibility. They also apply equally day or night. The same equipment is used for these whistle signals as for maneuvering and warning signals.
Courts have held that fog signals should be sounded when visibility is reduced to the distance at which sidelights are required. These sound signals serve two purposes: they alert nearby vessels to the presence and approximate position of the signaling vessel, and they may indicate its status (underway or not) or limitations of maneuverability (towing, being towed, sailing, fishing, etc.).
NOT TOO OFTEN!
The Rules prescribe an interval of “not more than two minutes” between the soundings of most fog signals from a vessel, and two minutes is the interval normally used. This is long enough for lookouts to recover their hearing after their own vessel sounds its fog signal, yet not so long as to allow other vessels to approach too closely without warning. Timing is best done automatically, and many electronic hailers have the capability to generate a fog signal regularly through their external sound system. If no automatic device is available, the sweep-second hand of a watch or clock may be used. The silent periods between blasts are intended for listening for signals from other vessels. (Note that the interval is one minute for bell and gong signals.)
Two minutes is a relatively brief interval and normally should not be further reduced by skippers concerned about collision. Use the interval between your blasts to listen for other vessels’ signals; this is as valuable for safety as blowing your own whistle or horn. If your signals are sounded automatically, interrupt them from time to time to make sure you are not signaling in synchronization with another vessel.
Power-Driven Vessels Underway
A power-driven vessel making way through the water must sound one prolonged blast at intervals of not more than two minutes. [35(a)]
Such a vessel underway but stopped and making no way through the water (also described as “underway with no way on”) must sound, at the same intervals, a signal of two prolonged blasts in succession separated by an interval of about two seconds. {35(b)]
A vessel towing or pushing another ahead, a vessel not under command, a vessel restricted in its ability to maneuver (underway or at anchor), and a fishing vessel (underway or anchored) all sound the same signal—one prolonged blast followed by two short blasts. [35(c)]
Sailing Vessels Underway
A sailing vessel underway makes the same sound signal in restricted visibility conditions as does a towing vessel, fishing vessel, etc., just as described above—one prolonged blast followed by two short blasts. [35(c)] Note that a sailing vessel, while not required to have a whistle for passing signals, must have some means of signaling in reduced visibility.
Vessels at Anchor
A vessel at anchor must, at intervals of not more than one minute, ring its bell rapidly for about five seconds. If it is 100 meters (328.1 ft) or more in length, the bell must be sounded in the forepart of the vessel, and immediately thereafter a gong must be sounded rapidly in the after part of the vessel for about five seconds. [35(g)]
A vessel at anchor may additionally sound a three-blast whistle signal—one short, one prolonged, one short—to give warning of its position, and the possibility of collision. [35(g)]
Special Anchorage Areas Inland Rule 35(l) permits the omission of fog signals for vessels in a “special anchorage area” if they are less than 20 meters (65.6 ft) in length or if they are a barge, canal boat, scow, or “other nondescript craft.”
Vessels Aground
A vessel aground must sound the bell signal of a vessel at anchor (and the gong signal, if applicable) and additionally give three separate and distinct strokes on the bell immediately before and after the rapid ringing of the bell. [35(h)] It does not sound the whistle signal of an anchored vessel.
A vessel aground may also sound an appropriate whistle signal on detecting the approach of another vessel if there is the possibility of collision. [35(h)] This rule is not specific as to the number and length of the blasts, but it could be the letter “U” of the International Code (short-short-long) for “You are standing into danger.”
Vessels Being Towed
If manned, a vessel being towed (or the last vessel if several are being towed in a string) must sound a fog signal of four blasts—one prolonged and three short blasts—at intervals of not more than two minutes. When possible, this signal should be sounded immediately after the signal of the towing vessel; see Figure 5-18. [35(e)] Unmanned towed vessels are not required to sound a fog signal.
Figure 5-18 A vessel towed astern (or the last vessel if more than one is being towed), if manned should sound a fog signal of one prolonged blast followed by three short blasts at intervals of not more than two minutes. If practicable, this signal should be sounded immediately after the fog signal—one prolonged followed by two short blasts—of the towing vessel.
Pilot Vessels
A pilot vessel, when engaged on pilot duties in restricted visibility conditions, may sound an “identity of four short blasts. This would be in addition to the normal signals of a vessel underway, underway with no way on, or at anchor. [35(k)]
Exception for Small Craft
Craft less than 20 meters (65.6 ft)) in length may, but need not, sound the above bell signals; but if they do not, they must make “some other efficient sound signal” at intervals not exceeding two minutes. [35(i) and (j)]
Other Rules & Procedures
There are a number of other, somewhat unrelated, rules and procedures with which a skipper should be familiar.
Signals to Attract Attention
To attract the attention of another vessel, any vessel may make light and/or sound signals that cannot be mistaken for any signal authorized in the Rules, or may direct the beam of its searchlight in the direction of the danger in such a way as to not embarrass any vessel. [36] The practical meaning of this prohibition is that you should not shine your searchlight directly into the pilot house or flybridge of another boat.
Use of high-intensity flashing (“strobe”) lights for the purpose of attracting attention is illegal. They are an official distress signal.
Signals for Drawbridges & Locks
U.S. Coast Guard regulations—not a part of the Inland Rules or Pilot Rules—prescribe uniform and unmistakable whistle signals for drawbridge operation. A vessel requesting a drawbridge opening will sound one prolonged whistle blast followed within three seconds by one short blast; this signal has no other meaning in any set of Navigation Rules. The regulations also provide for making the opening signal by horn, bell, or shout, or by any similar device whose sound can be clearly heard. The vessel’s signal should be repeated until acknowledged by the draw tender (also called a bridge tender) before proceeding close to the bridge.
Intent to Open the Draw If the drawtender will open the draw immediately, he responds with a similar one-prolonged-one-short-blast signal. If the draw cannot be opened immediately, the drawtender will sound five short blasts. When this signal has been sounded from the bridge, a vessel is specifically prohibited from attempting to pass through the closed draw.
Immediate Closing When an open drawbridge must be closed immediately, the drawtender must first sound the five-short-blast signal. This signal must be acknowledged by the vessel by sounding the same five-short-blast signal; if the vessel does not acknowledge the drawtender’s signal, the drawtender must repeat it until that is done. The same five-short-blast signal is sounded before a routine closing of a bridge; it is not replied to by a vessel unless it is still in the draw and would be endangered by the bridge being closed, in which case, the boat sounds five blasts. Other vessels must not enter the draw after the bridge tender has sounded the five-blast signal.
Approaching an Open Draw A vessel approaching a bridge that is already open still must give the opening signal. If no acknowledgement is received within 30 seconds, the vessel may proceed, with caution, through the draw.
Use of Visual Signals Visual signals may also be used if weather conditions may prevent signals from being heard or if sound-producing devices are not functioning properly. (Sound signals may also be used with visual signals.) A vessel signals with a white flag of a size readily visible for a half-mile by day or with a white light bright enough to be seen at the same distance at night. This signal is raised and lowered vertically, in full sight of the bridge tender, until acknowledged. The tender signals that the bridge will open immediately by repeating the same signal. The signal from the bridge that it cannot be opened immediately, or if open must be closed immediately, is a red flag waved horizontally by day or a red light swung back and forth horizontally at night in full sight of the vessel. (Some bridges may have mechanical devices and/or flashing electrical lights to signify the same meanings.)
Use of Radio Communications By far the most common form of communication in recent years between a vessel and a bridge tender is via VHF radio. Indeed, radio communications are used first to request an opening and also to receive information about the bridge’s opening status and any actions to be taken. Bridges equipped with radios often will display a sign in which a lightning-bolt symbol is superimposed on a telephone handset graphic; the preferred calling channel will be stated in the lower left corner of the sign, while the preferred working channel will be on the lower right. The bridge may also display a sign simply saying which channel to call to request an opening. Once contact is established, both the vessel and the bridge tender must continue to monitor the selected channel – most often 13 but occasionally 9 or even 16 – until the vessel has cleared the draw and the bridge area. If, for some reason, VHF radio contact cannot be established or maintained, sound or visual signals must be used.
Two or More Drawbridges Coast Guard regulations require that a vessel wishing to pass through two or more bridges close together must give the opening signal for the first bridge, and after acknowledgement it must give the opening signal for the second bridge, and so on, until all bridges have acknowledged that they will be opening promptly.
Two or More Vessels If two or more vessels approach the same drawbridge at nearly the same time from the same or opposite directions, the regulations require that each vessel must signal independently for the opening of the draw. The drawtender need not reply to signals by vessels accumulated at the bridge for passage during a scheduled open period.
Restricted Operations Some bridges have restricted hours of operations because of the volume of land traffic. The Coast Guard may authorize periods of no openings or openings only on specific schedules, such as hourly or every 30, 20, or 15 minutes. The restrictions may be for all day or only for morning and evening rush hours; there may also be seasonal restrictions. The restrictions will be posted on signs on each side of the bridge. During such periods, certain privileged vessels—government craft, tugs with tows, etc.—can request an opening by sounding five short blasts in lieu of the normal signal.
Do Not Cause Unnecessary Openings Clearance gauges are maintained on most drawbridges; skippers should know the vertical clearance required for their craft. Coast Guard regulations provide increasingly severe fines for vessel owners and operators who cause unnecessary bridge openings because of “any nonstructural vessel appurtenance which is not essential to navigation or which is easily lowered.” On the other hand, the same regulations provide penalties for any bridge tender who “unreasonably delays the openings of a draw after the required signals have been given.”
Canal Locks Signals for the operation of canal locks are often the same as those for bridges nearby, but not always; radios can be very effective in obtaining information on the status of a lock. Major ship canals have elaborate sets of lights and/or horn signals to control water-borne traffic. Consult the appropriate volume of the Coast Pilot or Navigation Regulations for the proper signals and VHF radio channel to use before approaching any lock.
Pilot Rules for Inland Waters
As noted in Chapter 4, the Pilot Rules are in Annex V to the Inland Navigation Rules.
Penalties
The penalties for violation of the Navigation Rules are described in Chapter 4;.
INTERNATIONAL NAVIGATION RULES
Certain of the International Rules relate to navigational lights and shapes; these were discussed in Chapter 4. This chapter considers only those rules and annexes relating to right-of-way, conduct of vessels in restricted visibility, and sound signals.
Manner of Consideration
Study of the U.S. Inland Rules provides an excellent base for learning the International Navigation Rules. Hence, the International Rules are considered in detail here only where they differ from the U.S. Inland Rules. Topics are discussed in the same sequence.
Definitions
The International Rules contain one definition that is not used in the U.S. Inland Rules. A VESSEL CONSTRAINED BY ITS DRAFT is a power-driven vessel that, because of its draft in relation to the available depth and width of navigable water, is severely restricted in its ability to deviate from its course. [3(h)]
Steering & Sailing Rules
The rules for signals are very nearly identical in the two sets, but where they do differ, the difference can be considerable and significant.
Sound Signals
The one- and two-short-blast whistle signals in the Inland Rules under conditions of good visibility are signals of intent and agreement, whereas those of the International Rules are indications of taking action to alter course. The International Rules signals are often termed RUDDER SIGNALS; they do not require a reply; see Figure 5-19. In some instances the other vessel will take similar action and so sound the same signal. The three-and five-or-more short blast signals have the same meaning in both sets of Rules.
Figure 5-19 Whistle signals of the International Navigation Rules indicate course changes rather than intent to pass. Such signals are not returned by the other vessel.
Equipment for Sound Signals
Annex III of the International Rules differs from the corresponding U.S. Inland Rules annex, but the differences are essentially technical and of little concern to small craft skippers. Several changes were made to this International Rules annex in November 2003 relating to frequencies, intensities, and ranges of audibility for vessels of various sizes.
The International Rules do not contain the provision allowing a vessel normally used for towing alongside or pushing ahead to use a whistle matched to the length of the customary combination of towed and towing vessels.
Sound-signaling equipment that is acceptable to the International Rules can also be used on inland waters, as provided for in the Inland Rule 1(b) (ii).
Maneuvering Lights
A maneuvering light used in conjunction with whistle signals must be white; yellow is not acceptable as it is under the Inland Rules. The light must have minimum range of 5 miles, and it need not be synchronized with the vessel’s whistle but must flash once for each blast sounded. Each flash and the interval between flashes shall be of about one second duration, and the interval between successive signals must be at least 10 seconds. [34(b)]
THE DUTY TO KEEP A LOOKOUT
Both the Inland and the International Navigation Rules are quite specific about requiring a “proper lookout.” This requirement has been further amplified by U.S. court decisions arising out of collisions. One of the earliest rulings dates from 1833, when a sailing vessel was held liable for a collision with another sailing vessel. The first vessel had no watch on deck other than the man at the helm. Later court decisions extended the ruling to power-driven vessels.
The courts have repeatedly defined a “lookout” as a person who is specially charged with the duty of observing lights, sounds, echoes, and any obstruction to navigation with all of the thoroughness that the circumstances permit. “Specially charged” in this context means that the lookout has no other duties at that time that might in any way detract from the keeping of a proper watch. Except in limited circumstances, mostly involving smaller vessels, the operator of a vessel is not legally complying with the Rules by keeping a lookout from the pilothouse.
A lookout should be someone who has had the training and experience to do the job. Normally the lookout should be stationed outside any cabin in order to hear sound signals. In fog, the traditional wisdom is to place the lookout as far forward and as low down as possible.
Radar-Equipped Vessels
The Rules require the proper use of radar on vessels that are so equipped. The person using the radar must know the characteristics, efficiency, and limitations of the equipment. Targets detected by radar must be systematically observed and plotted to determine their actual courses and speeds. Rule 7 is absolutely clear—assumptions should never be made from scanty radar information.
The sea state, weather (such as rain), and even transmissions from other nearby radars can cause targets to disappear from radar screens for periods of time. Small boats, particularly fiberglass-constructed recreational craft, may not always be detected in time to avoid collision. Use of a single range scale can be misleading. On long-range settings, small targets at short range may not be detected. At a short-range setting, the approach of a large vessel at some distance may not be detected.
Rules for Power-Driven Vessels
The rules for meeting and crossing situations are the same in both sets, except for whistle signals. The International Rules do not have the one-half-mile closest-point-of-approach requirement for signaling intent to pass, nor the reply signals of agreement. They do require a whistle signal for each change of course, without reply signals from the other vessel. On winding rivers where the vessel’s course follows the waterway, however, no whistle signals are used for the many necessary changes of course.
Overtaking Vessels
International Rule 9(e) for vessels in an overtaking situation applies only in a narrow channel or fairway and only if the overtaken vessel has to take some action to permit safe passing [9(e)(i)] (not in all waters and in all overtaking situations, as in the Inland Rules). The whistle signals are very different, and quite complex. [34(c)]
A vessel overtaking another will signal its intention by two prolonged blasts, followed by one short blast (“I intend to overtake you on your starboard side”) or by two prolonged blasts followed by two short blasts (“I intend to overtake you on your port side”). The vessel about to be overtaken signals its agreement not with the identical signal, as Inland Rules specify, but with one prolonged, one short, one prolonged, and one short blast—this is the letter “C” in Morse code and the international signal for “yes.” In case of doubt, the vessel about to be overtaken will sound the five-or-more short and rapid blasts.
Use of Radio Communication
The International Rules do not contain provisions for the use of radiotelephone communications in lieu of whistle signals. This does not mean, however, that such additional procedures are not an excellent means of ensuring a safe passage, and they are normally used.
Narrow Channels
International Rule 9(d) differs from its Inland Rules counterpart in that the sounding of a danger signal by a vessel that observes another crossing a narrow channel or fairway is optional, rather than mandatory.
Leaving a Berth
The International Rules do not include a signal for a power-driven vessel leaving a berth, as does Inland Rule 34(g). Such a signal, however, is not prohibited and would be a good idea, even on those U.S. coastal waters subject to the International Rules.
Sound Signals in Restricted Visibility
The International Rules do prescribe a sound signal in restricted visibility (such as fog) for a vessel constrained by its draft; this is the same signal, “one prolonged blast followed by two short blasts,” as has been prescribed for a sailing vessel, a towing vessel, a vessel engaged in fishing, and a vessel that is restricted in its ability to maneuver. [35(c)]
The International Rules do not provide for “special anchorage areas” where fog signals need not be sounded by small boats or by barges, scows, and the like.
TRAFFIC SEPARATION SCHEMES
A Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS) is one of several routing measures adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) to improve the safety of navigation in areas of converging traffic, congested areas, or where the freedom of navigation is constrained in some way. These are usually found at the entrances to major ports and “choke points,” where heavy volumes of shipping are forced to pass through narrow straits. TSSs are usually in waters outside demarcation lines, but their use is covered by Rule 10 in both the International and Inland Rules.
A TSS separates opposing traffic streams by appropriate means—such as the establishment of traffic lanes. Each traffic lane is reserved for one-way traffic of large ships with the direction indicated by an arrow on the chart. For small craft skippers, the regulation of particular interest is the one stating that vessels less than 20 meters (65.6 ft) and sailing vessels must not impede the safe passage of a power-driven vessel following a traffic lane. [10(j)]
A separation zone or line keeps apart the traffic lanes of vessels that are traveling in opposite directions. It also may divide traffic lanes from adjacent open waters, or it may designate separate lanes for particular classes of vessels heading in the same direction.
There can be inshore traffic zones that comprise a defined area between the landward boundary of a TSS and the adjacent coast. Where lanes converge, there will be a precautionary zone.
Ships that are using a TSS proceed in the appropriate traffic lane. So far as practicable, they are obliged to keep clear of a traffic separation zone or line. Vessels not using a traffic separation scheme must avoid it by as wide a margin as possible.
Normally, ships enter or leave a traffic separation lane at the termination of that lane. If they must join or leave a lane from either side, they should do so at as small an angle to the general flow of traffic as possible.
Vessels are advised to avoid crossing traffic lanes. If this cannot be avoided, crossing should be done as nearly as practicable at right angles to the general direction of traffic flow. Other than when crossing, vessels should refrain from entering a separation zone, except in emergencies or to fish within the separation zone.
Vessels less than 20 meters (65.6 ft.) in length, sailing vessels, and fishing vessels are free to use an inshore traffic zone if one exists. Otherwise, inshore traffic zones are not normally used by through-traffic.
Traffic separation schemes are indicated on NOS charts. This example shows the approaches to New York harbor.
General Right-of-Way Provisions
The International Rules contain the same general right-of-way “ranking” of vessel types as the Inland Rules do, plus a provision that any vessel except one not under command or restricted in its ability to maneuver must avoid impeding the safe passage of a vessel constrained by its draft, a category not included in the Inland Rules. [18(d)]
DISTRESS SIGNALS
Because of their great importance, the accepted forms of DISTRESS SIGNALS have been written into both the International and U.S. Inland Rules of the Road. These are contained in Annex IV, which is identical in both sets of rules, except that the Inland Rules additionally list a white high-intensity “strobe” light flashing 50 to 70 times per minute.
Figure 5-20 lists the officially recognized signals, but in an emergency a skipper can and should use any means he can to summon help.
Figure 5-20 Distress signals are specified and described in both the International and Inland Navigation Rules. These are the ones that are officially recognized, but in an emergency, a skipper can and should use any available means to summon help.
Supplemental Signals
In the category of “supplemental signals,” Annex IV lists a piece of orange-colored canvas with both a black square and a circle, or other appropriate symbol, for identification from the air. (Actually, the circle should be solid, more properly termed a “disk”; and although “other appropriate symbol” is not defined, the word “HELP” in large black, block letters is often used.)
Unofficial Distress Symbols
An unofficial but well-recognized signal, especially in inland and coastal waters, is a red-orange flag of any size, waved from side-to-side.
Most American boatmen would recognize the flying of an inverted U.S. national or yacht ensign as a signal of distress. Remember that such a signal has no official sanction, however, because many national flags have no “top” or “bottom” and appear the same if turned upside down.
Use of radiotelephones for distress communications and the new Digital Selective Calling (DSC) distress alert are covered in Chapter 20.
KNOW THE RULES—BUT USE GOOD JUDGMENT
When your boat encounters another in a situation involving a possible collision, you must know the Navigation Rules, take the proper actions, and, if appropriate, sound the prescribed sound signal. But that is not enough; you must be alert and use good judgment. The other skipper may or may not know the Rules, and he may not take the actions prescribed by the Rules. If the situation progresses to the point where an accident is likely, you must take any action necessary to avoid collision—this deviation from the normal procedures of the Rules is allowed, even required, by Rule 2.