Figure 20-01 A VHF/DSC marine radio should be the first item of electronic equipment for your boat—you will find many uses for it, but always use it in accordance with the FCC Rules. Smaller craft and dinghies can well use a handheld transceiver—less powerful, but with many features of an installed set.
Basic Radio Terminology • The Marine Radio System • VHF Radio Service • MF-HF Single Sideband Radio Service • The Global Maritime Distress & Safety System (GMDSS) • Other Radio Communications • Other Means of Communications
The compact size, low power demand, and waterproof design of today’s marine electronics make it possible for any size boat to be equipped with a complete set of navigation and communication gear.
From a safety viewpoint, always essential in boating, the first priority of purchase and installation in almost all cases will be a VHF/DSC radio for communications; see Figure 20-01. Other types of radios are also installed and used sometimes for specialized purposes. These include medium-frequency (MF) and high-frequency (HF) single sideband (SSB) radios for longer range communications; amateur radio equipment, which can serve many purposes for boaters; citizens band (CB) sets for communications that are not allowed on the marine service; and newer systems, such as Family Radio Service (FRS), General Mobile Radio Service (GMRS), satellite phones, marine satellite communication systems, and cell phones, often using special marine range extending amplifiers.
BASIC RADIO TERMINOLOGY
Unless you are interested in obtaining an advanced (marine or general) radiotelephone operator’s license, it’s not necessary to delve deeply into the physics of radio transmission. For most boat owners, it’s sufficient simply to understand a few very basic principles and distinctions, and to treat the rest in “black box” fashion—that is, to interface with marine radio as an intelligent user who is conversant with correct operating procedures, and without significant reference to what actually transpires inside the equipment. You will need to be familiar with certain characteristics of radio communications to understand the proper selection, installation, licensing, and use of radiotelephones.
These characteristics include frequency bands, types of modulation, power, antenna requirements, and operating range. Almost all radios for small craft combine the transmitter and receiver into a single unit, the proper but seldom used name of which is TRANSCEIVER.
Frequency Bands
Radio energy is generated and transmitted as waves with specific physical characteristics. For our purposes, the two most important of these are amplitude (the height of the wave from trough to crest), a measure of power, and frequency (the rapidity with which the crests of the waves arrive at a given point). The unit of frequency equal to one cyle per second is a HERTZ (Hz). Frequency is today universally expressed in KILOHERTZ (kHz), where 1 kHz = 1,000 Hz, and MEGAHERTZ (MHz), where 1 MHz = 1,000 kHz; satellites and radars use frequencies measured in GIGAHERTZ (GHz), where 1 GHz = 1,000 MHz.
The total radio frequency spectrum is divided into various BANDS—from extremely low frequency (ELF) to extremely high frequency (EHF); see Figure 20-02. Various communications and navigation systems work in one or more of these bands, as indicated in the spectrum bands of Figure 20-02 and discussed below.
Radio communications for boats are in the medium frequency (MF), high frequency (HF), and very high frequency (VHF) bands. The characteristics of each band are quite different, and the use of each is determined by its characteristics—primarily its operating range.
Figure 20-02 The radio frequency spectrum is divided into broad “bands” from extremely low frequency (ELF) to extremely high frequency (EHF). In boating, all bands from LF (differential GPS beacons) to SHF (radar) are used for various purposes. Marine radio communications are in the MF, HF, VHF, and SHF (satellite) bands.
VHF The very high frequency portion of the spectrum extends from 30 to 300 MHz, but the portion of interest to boaters lies between 156 and 163 MHz. VHF radio signals are often described as “line of sight,” but actually the range is somewhat greater due to a slight degree of bending over the horizon. While the visual distance to the horizon is 1.17 Åã —H, where H is the height of eye above the surface of the water in feet and distance is measured in nautical miles, an equation often used for VHF radio range calculations is 1.22 Åã —H, where H is height of the antenna. (The equation for range would be 2.25 Åã —H if the height were in meters, with the distance still in nautical miles.)
These equations do not yield an exact or precise determination of range, and variations can be expected. It can be seen, however, that the height of an antenna is a primary factor in determining the communications range of any particular VHF installation. The amount of power used has some effect, but it is relatively slight, much less than you might expect. Normal maximum range is usually stated as about 20 miles assuming typical antenna heights for boats, but signals may sometimes be heard at distances of 200 miles or more under unusual but not uncommon conditions. This usually occurs during temperature inversions, when a “duct” is formed between the earth’s surface and air layers at several thousand feet altitude that are warmer, rather than colder, than conditions at the surface.
MF and HF Medium frequencies (MF) lie between 300 and 3,000 kHz (3 MHz), and high frequencies (HF) between 3 and 30 MHz. Of interest to boaters is a section of MF between 2 and 3 MHz and HF frequencies in the 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, and 22 MHz bands. The transmission characteristics of these frequency bands vary from one to another, from day to night, and, in some cases, from summer to winter. Propagation is both by GROUND WAVES, whereby the signal follows around the surface of the earth, gradually diminishing in strength, and by SKY WAVES, where the signal is radiated straight outward at an angle to the horizon, encounters an IONIZED layer in the upper atmosphere, the IONOSPHERE, and is reflected back to earth; see Figure 20-03. These ionized layers (there are more than one) are at heights varying from 30 to 215 miles as determined by daylight/darkness conditions, season, and the status of the 11-year cycle of sunspots (radiation from the sun causes the ionization). Communications may be established over distances up to a few hundred miles by use of the ground waves, or out to thousands of miles using sky waves. There will normally be a SKIP ZONE—a dead zone between the most distant reception of ground waves and the nearest reception of sky waves.
Figure 20-03 MF and HF radio signals are transmitted both by ground waves and sky waves. Ground waves spread out along the earth’s surface for a few hundred miles. Sky waves start out at an angle above the earth’s surface, are reflected by the ionosphere, and return to earth farther out as shown above. Between the reception area for ground waves and sky waves is the “skip zone,” an area of no reception.
Selecting a frequency band for communications with a distant ship or shore station is a complex matter affected by the distance, time of day, and season. Specific instructions will be found in the operating manuals of radios used for high-seas HF communications; experience gained by use of such equipment is of great assistance in selecting the optimum frequencies. In general terms, the following guidance can be offered:
• The 2 MHz band is usable for shorter distances of 20 to 100 miles day or night, with somewhat greater distances being reached at night. FCC Rules, however, require that VHF must be used for shorter distances (about 20 miles or less), where its range is adequate.
• The 4 MHz band is a short-to-mediumdistance band for 20 to 250 miles during the day but can open out to longer distances at night—150 to 1,500 miles.
• The 8 MHz band is a medium-distance (250 to 1,500 miles) band during the day and a longdistance (400 to 3,000 miles) band at night.
• The 12, 16, 22, and 25 MHz bands are for use over thousands of miles.
• The highest frequency band that can be used is normally the best choice, as signals will be stronger and atmospheric noise least.
An excellent way to determine which frequency band to use is to listen; if you can hear the distant station you want to communicate with, it will probably be able to hear you after the channel clears. If you don’t hear it on a specific frequency, try channels on higher and lower frequency bands.
Other Bands Very low frequency (VLF) and low frequency (LF) bands are used for electronic navigation systems. Frequencies in the ultrahigh frequency (UHF), super-high frequency (SHF), and extremely high frequency (EHF) bands are used for radars and satellite systems.
Types of Modulation
In order to be useful for voice communications, radio waves generated at a given frequency must be modulated. It is this modulation of the signal that ultimately produces audible voice emulation at the receiving end. Some radio sets modulate their transmitted signals by means of FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM) and some by AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM).
AM Amplitude modulation, in double sideband (DSB) form, employs a carrier wave plus two sidebands, one either side of the carrier. AM is used by regular broadcast stations in the 550 to 1600 kHz band. For many years, DSB AM was also used in marine radiotelephone communications, but it has been replaced by SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB) AM, which employs a reduced or suppressed carrier wave and only one sideband (which is all that is needed), for long-range communications.
An advantage of SSB transmission is that its “narrower” signals take up less space in a crowded spectrum and so allow more channels to be used within a given band. Another plus is that this type of modulation provides more “talk power” by concentrating all of the voice information in a single sideband (a carrier wave bears no intelligence, and the second sideband merely duplicates the first one). There is also less interference between two adjacent SSB signals than there would be with DSB transmissions.
While single sideband transceiver circuitry is necessarily more complex than AM double side-band equipment, the marine band units are outstandingly easy to operate.
FM Frequency modulation conveys information by varying the frequency of a carrier wave. The strength or amplitude of the information signal (voice) determines the amount by which the carrier frequency is altered.The frequency content of the information determines the rate at which the carrier frequency deviates from its nominal frequency.
FM radio signals have the advantage that they are not significantly affected by atmospheric noise (static) or noise from shipboard electrical equipment. FM signals are normally of excellent intelligibility and clarity with properly functioning transmitters and receivers. They also exhibit what is known as “capture effect”: When AM signals from two different stations are transmitted simultaneously on the same frequency, they interfere with one another and often render both unreadable. However, when FM signals from two transmitting stations are competing on the same channel, the stronger signal “captures” the receiver and will be heard clearly, with no interference from the weaker signal. While a VHF radio’s transmitter power will not necessarily determine communication range, a stronger signal is more likely to be heard when more than one station is transmitting on the same channel.
FM transmission displaces the transmitter signal from its nominal frequency, therefore occupying additional radio frequency “space.” Marine VHF radios use “narrow-band FM” modulation to limit the frequency deviation of the transmitter and allow for the maximum number of channels in the marine band.
Power
The power of a radio transmitter can be described and measured in a number of ways. VHF/FM transmitters are rated in OUTPUTPOWER, the power delivered to the point where the antenna cable is connected; this is roughly 35 to 40 percent of the DC input power from the boat’s electrical system. (The DC power consumed while receiving is very slight.) VHF sets on boats are limited by regulations to 25 watts and must have a front-panel control to reduce this to 1 watt or less. FCC rules require the use of the minimum transmitter power necessary to establish reliable communication. Use of low power reduces interference with other stations using the same frequency.
The power of single sideband radio transmitters is defined as the peak level or strength of the modulated signal (usually voice), including both the energy in the sideband that conveys the information and any residual carrier signal that may be present. The MF/HF SSB transmitters used on ships may emit signals with PEAK ENVELOPE POWER (PEP) up to 1,150 watts. The transceivers sold for use on most recreational vessels deliver 100 to 150 watts PEP.
Antennas
While almost any piece of wire can be used to receive radio signals, the transmitting antenna must act as a precise and efficient go-between, matching the electrical characteristics (impedance) of the transmitter to the impedance of the atmosphere. The better the match, the more effective the communication link.
VHF A VHF/FM radiotelephone is virtually useless without an appropriate antenna. It can sometimes receive signals, but only relatively strong ones, and it cannot transmit. (Indeed, a radiotelephone’s circuitry can be damaged if the transmitter is triggered without an antenna being attached.)
Virtually all VHF/FM radiotelephone antennas today are of the “whip” variety—that is, they’re supported at their bottom end only. In shorter lengths (30 to about 42 inches), the whips are sometimes made of a self-supporting stainlesssteel rod, but in longer lengths, they are almost always constructed of a thin wire surrounded and supported by a flexible, wrapped fiberglassreinforced plastic casing, the casing being “transparent” to radio waves.
The basic antenna for a marine VHF radio is a vertical °-wavelength whip, a wire about 36 inches long. Such an antenna will radiate the transmitter’s signal toward the horizon in all directions. Little or no energy is radiated upward or downward, and the energy that might have been sent in those directions is added to the strength of the signal aimed at the horizon, creating a signal at the receiving antenna that would have resulted from a transmitter having twice the power, expressed as an antenna “gain” of 3 DECIBELS (dB). Making the antenna longer than a half wavelength redistributes the radiated energy, directing more toward the horizon at the expense of making the radiated “beam” increasingly narrow. Increased length = increased gain; a 6- to 8-foot antenna = a 6 dB gain (twice that of the 3-foot antenna); a 14- to 19-foot antenna = an 8–9 dB gain (twice as much as the 6 dB antenna, 16 times the gain of the 3 dB antenna). But is more gain better?
There are a number of reasons why installing the highest gain antenna available will produce undesirable results. First, increased gain usually requires increased length, and physical limitations may prevent installation of a very high-gain antenna. In addition, as previously noted, radiated power does not have a major effect on range; only antenna height does. Therefore, it is sometimes more effective to use a lower-gain antenna mounted high up—for instance, at the top of a sailboat mast or on a powerboat antenna extension mast.
Secondly, gain antennas work by concentrating the radiated signal: They “squeeze” increasing amounts of the radiated energy into a progressively narrowing horizontal beam and, in doing so, lose less energy to useless skyward radiation. (Remember VHF signals are not, to any useful extent, reflected back to earth by the ionosphere.) See Figure 20-04. But that horizontally concentrated pattern is an advantage only as long as the transmitting vessel remains relatively level. If the transmitting vessel heels or rolls to any great extent (for example, a sailboat under a press of sail or a powerboat running in a heavy beam sea), this horizontally concentrated pattern results in the transmitted waves being, at one moment, directed into the sea (leeward heeled side) and at the next moment beamed uselessly skyward (windward heeled side). For that reason, it is usual practice not to choose an antenna gain greater than 3 dB for sailing vessels and to limit gain to 6 to 9 dB on powerboats, depending on their size and stability.
The effective radiated power of the VHF radio depends in large measure on the distance between the radio and the antenna and the energy that is absorbed in the connecting coaxial cable. Half (3 dB) of the transmitter’s power will be lost in a 49-foot length of the small-diameter (0.195-inch) RG-58U cable (6.1 dB / 100 feet) used in many installations. Using °-inch-diameter RG-8X extends the 3 dB loss distance to 66 feet (4.5 dB/100 feet). If you use RG-213 (0.410-inch diameter) cable (2.7 dB/100 feet), the 3 dB loss occurs when the cable is 111 feet long. It is also important to use only marine-grade coaxial connectors and to use as few connectors as possible between the radio and the antenna.
Figure 20-04 Higher-gain antennas achieve greater range by “squeezing down” the radiation pattern (left), increasing signals at lower, desirable angles and decreasing the power that is wasted in upward, unproductive angles. An antenna with too much gain—too flat a radiation pattern—may be disadvantageous in rough water. As the boat rolls and pitches (right), the radiated signal may go above the receiving boat or down into the water. Either will cause fading and intermittent reception.
If a vessel operates in open waters in rough conditions (when distress calling is most likely needed), there is always the risk of losing or seriously damaging a whip antenna. The prudent skipper carries a spare or an emergency antenna. The best is one that can be readily mounted on deck and is fitted with a cable of sufficient length and the correct coaxial connector for attachment to the vessel’s VHF radiotelephone. (This is true for sailboats, as well as powerboats, since a sailboat is most likely to have lost its mast-mounted antenna during a partial or complete dismasting.)
MF and HF Providing an efficient transmitting antenna for MF and HF transmitters poses a challenge on any boat. Unlike VHF, where a halfwavelength antenna is about 3 feet in length, a half-wavelength at 2182 KHz is 225 feet, and even the “shorter” half-wavelength at 25 MHz is more than 19 feet. Fortunately, microprocessorcontrolled automatic ANTENNA TUNERS (or COUPLERS) make it possible to install an effective MF/HF antenna with little difficulty. A 17- to 23-foot vertical whip antenna connected to the antenna tuner will provide efficient and effective signal radiation over the 2–25 MHz range. Sailboats often substitute an insulated section of standing rigging for the whip antenna. The automatic antenna tuner is usually housed in a weatherproof enclosure and is mounted adjacent to the base of the antenna. A coaxial cable and a multiwire control cable connect the tuner to the SSB radio. Each time a new operating frequency is selected, the antenna tuner automatically selects the combination of reactors (coils) and capacitors necessary to provide optimum transfer of energy to the atmosphere.
Proper operation of the MF/HF transmitter’s vertical antenna requires a radio frequency ground made by connecting the antenna tuner to seawater using a 3-inch-wide, thin copper strap (normal electrical wire will not suffice). Connecting the copper ground strap to a metal hull will create the necessary connection to the sea. In nonconductive hulls, the ground can be created by connecting the ground strap to copper screen (at least 100 square feet or 9.3 m2) adhered to the inside of the hull beneath the waterline. The copper screen, electrically insulated from the sea by the hull, will act as if it were on the exterior of the hull at the radio frequencies used for MF and HF communication.
Modes of Operation
Two different modes of operation are used in marine radio communications. Most marine communications are SIMPLEX—both stations transmit and receive on the same frequency. Thus the person on the receiving end cannot interrupt and communicate to the person transmitting until the latter stops transmitting and provides the opportunity. This technique is sometimes difficult for a beginner to grasp in practice—but this is the reason why you must pause after transmitting and release the microphone button. In fact, this is the only way that you will be able to hear the reply from the party at the other end.
In SEMI-DUPLEX (or HALF-DUPLEX) operation, two frequencies are used, each station alternately transmitting on one and receiving on the other. FULL-DUPLEX allows a station to transmit and receive simultaneously, as you would with a conventional telephone on land—this is not possible on boats, except for some satellite circuits.
Radiotelephones
The radio communication equipment authorized for use on boats, and by persons holding no personal license or the rudimentary, easy-to-obtain Restricted Radiotelephone Operators Permit, is constructed to ensure that only certain designated frequencies are used and that it is impossible to transmit inadvertently on unauthorized frequencies. This is accomplished by eliminating the need for operator tuning, incorporating “switch-selectable” channels instead. Because the simplified operation of such units, and their primary devotion to voice communication, are reminiscent of shoreside telecommunications, the units have come to be known as radiotelephones. Such equipment must be “type accepted” by the FCC, and by regulation these are the only sets that can be used.
THE MARINE RADIO SYSTEM
In the very early days of electronic ship-to-shore and ship-to-ship communications, the use of Morse code predominated. This continued to be the case in military and commercial marine contexts for quite some time, but no longer. Today, the vast majority of marine electronic communications, especially for recreational boats, are conducted with voice transmissions.
Marine voice transmissions are, for the most part, much like conversations between two persons over shoreside telephones. However, there are at least two important differences between ordinary onshore telephone conversations and marine communications.
Except for some VHF use, there are very specific federal licensing requirements and more stringent procedural regulations for marine communications. It should be noted that communications regulations and certain procedures vary from one country to another. Unless otherwise stated, the material in this chapter should be understood as pertaining exclusively to the United States. The rules and regulations of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) uniformly refer to “ship stations”—boaters must understand that this applies to vessels of all sizes, even the smallest of boats.
Safety Communications
Perhaps the most important point for skippers of recreational craft to understand is that, by law, the primary function of regulated electronic communications at sea is safety, and that marine radio communications related to safety have absolute priority over all other communications. Certain other specified uses of marine radios are allowed, but the overriding rule is that if you’re talking to another vessel or to a shore station about matters other than immediate safety—for example, the weather, or whether a destination marina has a slip available for your arrival—you must without exception cease transmitting if there is a safety-related communication competing for the airwaves. In fact, even among safety-related communications there is a specific hierarchy of priority that must, again under law, be observed. These points will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
“RESCUE 21”
The Coast Guard’s legacy National Distress and Response System has been replaced by RESCUE 21, an entirely new and vastly more capable communication network. Based on the use of Digital Selective Calling (DSC), the new system provides VHF radio communication out to at least 20 nautical miles from shore along the entire coastline of the continental U.S. and extensive coverage elsewhere. As of 2017 the system covers 41,871 miles of coastline including the Great Lakes, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico, with Alaska due by the end of 2017.
Rescue 21 uses the latest communication technology, including DSC and computerenhanced direction finding (±2° line of bearing) to take much of the “search” out of search and rescue. DSC calls that include the vessel’s GPS position instantly provide the Coast Guard with a wealth of life-saving information. The precise position of the calling vessel is immediately plotted on the system’s computer screen chart. Relevant information about the calling vessel is immediately available through reference to the vessel’s MMSI as is the “nature of distress” information that can be included in the distress call from some sets. The Coast Guard’s DSC distress signal acknowledgment call automatically terminates the calling radio’s continuing transmission of the DSC distress call and switches the calling radio to Channel 16 to ensure that the operator of the radio will hear the ensuing voice calls from the Rescue 21 site that is managing the distress call.
Multiple communication channels at each Rescue 21 antenna site enable the Coast Guard to manage communications with multiple stations: Coast Guard vessels and aircraft and components of local emergency services and law enforcement. Encryption is available to provide communication security for sensitive traffic.
The use of DSC hailing in which a digital signal transmitted on Channel 70 (which is reserved exclusively for the brief, one-third-of-a-second signal) for distress signaling benefits everyone. The digital hailing signal can be received and accurately decoded even when conditions make it difficult or impossible to establish clear voice communication. The DSC hailing call cannot be blocked by traffic on Channel 16 that all too often interferes with voice calls for assistance. The DSC hailing call provides the Coast Guard with a great deal of very useful information.
The Rescue 21 System’s instantaneous radio direction-finding system protects against the serious, potentially fatal result of hoax distress calls that can divert search-and-rescue assets at times when they are needed to respond to an actual emergency. All received calls are automatically logged, including their position as determined by the intersecting lines of bearing from all of the sites at which the signal was received. A hoax caller is very likely to be responding to a visit from the Coast Guard or from local law enforcement within minutes of making the illegal call.
Operational Communications
In addition to safety, electronic voice communications are also allowed for “operational” purposes, which, strictly speaking, are those having to do with the navigation, movement, and management of vessels at sea. In the recreational sector, these categories of operational uses are, for the most part, interpreted liberally. For example, ship-toship communications between two boats about where to stay for the night would be considered as having to do with “movement.” And ship-to-shore communications between a yacht skipper and the attendant at a fuel dock would be considered as having to do with “management.” However, a call to a marina to make dinner reservations at that facility’s restaurant would not fall within this category and so would not be permissible.
Personal & Social Communications
It’s important to keep in mind that, however liberally the concepts of “safety” and “operational” are interpreted, the laws governing marine communications strictly prohibit superfluous personal or social chitchat between boats on most channels (frequencies).
Communications of a strictly personal or social nature are allowed, but only in certain contexts and on certain channels specifically designed for that purpose. These circumstances and channels have primarily to do with ship-to-shore communications, in which a radio connection is made with a land-based telephone system via a marine operator (if one is available). In such cases, the boat’s radiotelephone becomes part of the land-based telephone system; calls may be placed to, or received from, shoreside telephones for any purpose allowed under the laws governing land-based telecommunications. Keep in mind, however, that calls placed through a marine operator are subject to “linkage” and other charges.
Marine VHF radio rules do not apply to cellular telephone communications from vessels or to such services as citizen band (CB) and the Family Radio Service (FRS).
Licensing
The regulations of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) do not require individual station licenses for VHF/FM radios on “voluntarily equipped” boats that do not travel to foreign ports or engage in international communications; included in this exemption are radars and all types of EPIRBs (emergency position-indicating radiobeacons;). Cruising or fishing in international waters—beyond the 12-mile U.S. territorial limit—does not invoke the requirement for a station license provided that you not enter waters under the jurisdiction of another country. This action benefits a large majority of U.S. boaters in that a fee no longer must be paid. Even though an individual license is not required, such a station must still be used in full compliance with all applicable operating regulations as before; the only exception is that now call signs will not be used, as they will no longer be assigned.
Note carefully that this change in FCC rules does not exempt any craft required by law or regulation to be equipped with a radio. Also not exempted are HF-MF single-sideband (SSB) installations and radio-equipped boats that do travel to foreign waters or communicate across national boundaries; these must have licenses as before. No station license is required for U.S. recreational craft in Canadian waters.
Before applying for any FCC license or permit, a person must obtain an FCC registration number (FRN). This can be done electronically at http://www.fcc.gov (click on button for “Licensing and Databases” and then click on “CORES”) or by submitting a paper Form 160 to FCC Attn: CORES Administrator, 445 12th Street SW, Washington, DC 20554-0001. There is no fee. Changes are made by filing Form 161 online or by mail. If you forget your FRN, go to the search function on the FCC home page. Your business name and FRN should appear in the search results. If you need more help, call the FRN help desk at 877-480-3201, option 4.
Applying for a Station License
A station license may be issued to a U.S. citizen, corporation, or an alien individual, but not to the government of a foreign nation or its representative. This license can be applied for by mail using FCC Form 605—provided you have your state registration numbers or a U.S. Coast Guard documentation number. (Note: The FCC will accept only the current form; forms packed with radios by the manufacturer may be obsolete. Forms may be requested by calling 888-225-5322, or they may be downloaded from the Internet at www.fcc.gov/forms.) Form 605 is a multipart form; detailed instructions for completion of the application appear on the first nine pages. Read and heed these carefully to avoid having your application returned for correction or additional information. The next two pages are the application that will be mailed to the FCC. Be sure that you ask for all the frequency bands you need now or can anticipate needing in the future.
Fees for the ship station and operator permit total $220 as of 2017 and must accompany the application together with FCC Form 159 marked with payment code “PASR.” Payment may be made by check or money order, payable to “FCC,” or by credit card (Visa, MasterCard, American Express, or Discover Card). Send all required papers to Federal Communications Commission, P.O. Box 979097, St. Louis, MO, 63197-9000. Fees are reviewed annually and may be changed. Application can be made electronically with payment by credit card. If the application is returned as defective, the returned papers may require a second application fee payment. Questions regarding fees can be directed to 202-418-3676, 800-418-3676, or 877-480-3201, option 2.
If you need immediate use of the radio, Schedule F at the end of Form 605 becomes a temporary license valid for 90 days, within which time you should receive the formal papers. It gives information on generating a temporary call sign (based on your registration or documentation numbers) that can be used for interim operation. Use of such a temporary call sign must cease on receipt of the regular license and call sign, even if the 90-day period has not expired.
Radio station licenses in the U.S. are issued in the name of the owner and the vessel. A station license is not automatically transferred to another person upon sale of the boat, nor may a license be moved with the radio set to a new boat owned by the same person; a new license must be applied for using Forms 605 and 159 marked with fee payment code “PASR,” plus payment in the same amount as for a new license. A change in the licensee’s legal name, mailing address, vessel name, official documentation number, or state registration number (but not a change in ownership) does not require license modification, just send Form 605 for an “Administrative Update”—no fee required—to the FCC at 1270 Fairfield Rd., Gettysburg, PA 17325-7245, advising of the change. A copy of this form must be posted on board along with the license. A simple change in equipment requires no action at all. The only instance of a modification of a license during its term would be to add an FCC-issued Maritime Mobile Service Identity (MMSI) number;. The FCC does not charge a fee for this. (An MMSI may be obtained without charge from BoatU.S., Sea Tow, and several other authorized sources.) The license expiration date is not changed. A license may be modified at the time of renewal without additional cost beyond the normal renewal fee. If a station license is lost, a duplicate must be obtained; send Forms 605 and 159 and the fee of $70 using fee payment code “PADM.”
FCC regulations require that a station license be conspicuously posted on board the vessel at the principal control point of the station. The license term is 10 years. Approximately 120 days before the expiration date, the FCC will send a renewal reminder. If this is not received by 30 days before expiration, renewal should be Form 605 and Form 159 marked with the fee payment code “PASR,” together with the same fee as for a new license, to the FCC Wireless Bureau Applications, P.O. Box 979097, St. Louis, MO, 63197-9000. Licenses can also be renewed on the Internet with payment by credit card. If you did make timely application for renewal, operation may continue even if you have not received the renewed license before the expiration date. If the boat is sold or use of the radio station is ever permanently discontinued, you should send Form 605 requesting cancellation of the license to the FCC at the Gettysburg address; this will preclude your being held responsible for any future misuse of the call sign concerned.
For changes in FCC rules, fees, and procedures go tohttp://wireless.fcc.gov.
Applying for an Operator Permit
A personal license, a radio operator permit, is not required for the operation of a VHF set on a boat exempt from having to have a station license as described above. An exception applies if a boat goes into Canadian waters: an operator permit is required (Canada has a station license exemption similar to the United States, but requires an operator permit for its boaters). If such license is required, a RESTRICTED RADIOTELEPHONE OPERATOR PERMIT or higher grade of license is required.
For vessels carrying more than six passengers for hire, and for vessels over 65 feet in length on the Great Lakes, whether commercial or noncommercial, the operator must have a highergrade Marine Radio Operator Permit. At least a restricted permit is required on board vessels that must comply with the Bridge-to-Bridge Radio-telephone Act (see Chapter 5)—vessels over 65 feet in length, tugs over 26 feet, and dredges in channels. A higher-class license is available for trained individuals making tuning adjustments and repairs. In situations where a licensed operator is required, an unlicensed person may talk into the microphone, but a licensed operator must be present and responsible for the proper use of the station.
An applicant for any grade of U.S. operator’s license must be a U.S. citizen or a foreign national eligible for work in the U.S. (there are some exceptions for special cases). For a Restricted Radiotelephone Operator Permit, you do not have to appear in person at any FCC office. It is obtained by filling out FCC Form 605 and mailing it to the Federal Communications Commission, Wireless Bureau Applications, P.O. Box 979097, St. Louis, MO, 63197-9000. A fee of $70 must accompany the application and Form 159 marked with payment type code “PARR.” The permit is issued, without test or examination, by declaration. The applicant must “certify” that he can speak and hear, keep at least a rough written log, and is familiar with the treaties, laws, and regulations governing the station he will operate. He must also certify that he had need for a permit because he intends to engage in international voyages and is eligible for employment in the United States. The restricted permit is valid for the lifetime of the person to whom it is issued, unless it is suspended or revoked. Follow the instructions carefully to avoid having the application returned to you for correction. A portion of Form 605 may be retained as a temporary operator permit, valid for 60 days; this allows you to get on the air immediately if your operations require a permit.
An examination is required for the higher-grade Marine Radio Operator Permit, necessitating a visit to an authorized examination office; these are listed on the Internet at http://wireless.fcc.gov/commoperators/index.htm. This test is nontechnical, in a multiple-choice format, and consists of the basic radio law and operating practice questions with which a radio operator should be familiar. To pass, the examinee must correctly answer at least 18 of the 24 questions. You will find the examination not at all difficult if you prepare for it properly; study pamphlets are available. The examination centers charge a fee, which varies, for conducting the examination. The FCC does not charge a fee for this permit, which is issued for the holder’s lifetime.
If your radio operator permit is lost or becomes illegible, apply immediately for a duplicate. Use the same form as for an original and a fee of $70 with Form 159 marked PADM. State the circumstances fully and, if the license has been lost, you must certify that a reasonable search has been made. Continued operation is authorized if a signed copy of the application for a duplicate is posted. If a lost license is found later, send either that license or the duplicate to the FCC for cancellation.
• Canadian licensing Canadian boats are subject to similar station and operator licensing; the only significant difference is that the Canadian Restricted Operator Certificate (Maritime) requires passing a brief exam on correct operating procedures. This exam is only given by units of the Canadian Power & Sail Squadrons. The certificate is available without charge, but must be obtained before applying for a Non compulsory Station License. Such a station license is required only for those vessels sailing to waters other than those of Canada; since the terrorist attacks of 9/11, such station license is required for Canadian craft in U.S. waters.
Information on current licensing procedures and the appropriate forms can be obtained from Canadian Power & Sail Squadrons, (CPS-ECP), 26 Golden Gate Court, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M1P 3A5; telephone 888-277-2628; www.cps-ecp.ca.
VHF/FM RADIO SERVICE
For small craft, the maritime communications system is divided into two parts—short range and long range. Each of these portions involves different equipment—VHF/FM for short range, and MF-HF/SSB for long range.
Most marine electronic voice communications, especially in the recreational sector, use a VHF/FM radiotelephone. In fact, by law, a VHF/FM radio must be installed on board as a precondition to the licensing and installation of any other form of marine radiotelephone. The reason for this is that VHF/FM is, by domestic law and international treaty, the prescribed vehicle for local communications, both ship-toship and ship-to-shore.
Channels
The marine VHF communications band stretches from 156 to 162.5 MHz. Within this band, there are numbered CHANNELS spaced 25 kHz apart. Actual frequencies are rarely mentioned in marine communications; the general procedure is to speak of channel numbers. Channels, or groups of channels, are assigned specific uses and may not be used for other purposes; see Table 20-1. Most are simplex channels; others are semiduplex. In the United States, some channels internationally assigned for duplex use are employed for simplex communications on the lower frequency of the pair; these have the letter “A” as a suffix, such as 22A. VHF transceivers have a USA/International switch to select the appropriate channels. Remember “A” (“Alfa”) in “USA” when communicating with the U.S. Coast Guard.
VHF/FM transmissions are basically line of sight—that is, the signals are not reflected by the ionosphere under normal conditions, nor do they significantly bend around the curvature of the earth. Consequently, VHF/FM transmission is fairly well restricted to a limited geographical area, on average 10 to 15 nautical miles in ship-toship situations and 25 to 30 miles ship-to-shore, depending on the heights of both the transmitting and receiving antennas. That means a boat transmitting in, say, Jacksonville, Florida, on 156.3 MHz will not interfere with one transmitting on the same frequency at the exact same time in St. Augustine, Florida, 45 miles away. And the potential for interference is further decreased in VHF/FM radiotelephones by the legal limitation of their maximum output power to 25 watts, the requirement for a switch-selectable, 1-watt output for close-in communications, and by the capture effect previously mentioned.
Table 20-1 This table lists selected VHF channels, their operating frequencies, and their general purposes, focusing primarily on the interests of recreational (noncommercial) boaters. Some additional commercial and noncommercial channels are available in specific limited areas. The FCC has numerous additional conditions and limitations on certain channels too complex to be shown here. The “A” suffix indicates a channel used only in U.S. waters and is different from its frequencies and purpose in international usage. Wx1, Wx2, and Wx3 are widely used as the primary channels for continuous weather reports and forecasts. Additional Channels Wx4 – Wx7 are used in specific areas, as necessary, to avoid possible interference with a primary channel. Channels 87B & 88B are AIS channels.
Equipment Selection
There are many manufacturers of VHF radio equipment for boats and ships—and each manufacturer has many models. The selection of a VHF set for your boat should be undertaken with study and care. As with most electronic devices, a higher price brings better construction and more features, but you may not need the very top-of-the-line transceiver. Compare models and ask other boaters what has been their experience with different manufacturers and models; see Figure 20-05.
Figure 20-05 A VHF transceiver must be “type accepted” by the FCC. Power is switch-selectable between 25 watts and 1 watt. Low power should be used for short distances to reduce interference to other stations and is mandatory (automatic) for Channel 13.
Power & Channels
VHF/FM radiotelephones are limited by law to 25 watts output power and required to have a 1-watt switchable low-power setting. Output power does not directly determine operating range, which can be considered as line-of-sight between the transmitting and receiving antennas regardless of transmitting or radiating power. However, output power does have a bearing on capture effect, namely, the ability of the signal to be received clearly in spite of potential interference from simultaneous signals from other transmitters. As a practical matter, every VHF/FM set now manufactured, except handheld models, is built with the maximum allowable 25 watts output power. Handheld units will usually have an output power of 5 watts, sometimes less.
VHF radios—full-size and handheld—have the legally required channels and many more.
Receiver Specifications
The performance of the receiver is as important as that of the radio’s transmitter and accounts for about 75% of the cost of the radio. The most significant measure of receiver performance is its ability to ensure that you hear what you need to hear and reject the interfering signals. It’s easy to build a sufficiently sensitive receiver (typically 0.25ìV); it is more difficult and costly to provide the levels of selectivity, intermodulation rejection ratio, and spurious response rejection ratio that are required to deal with today’s noisy signal conditions, especially in the major metropolitan areas. A radio that achieves a rating of at least 60 dB for each of these measures will be satisfactory when used in relatively unpopulated and therefore “quiet” areas. Radios used in major ports and near large cities should measure at least 70 dB for these parameters. To obtain the best performance, choose a set whose receiver measures 80 dB for intermodulation rejection ratio.
Other Considerations & Features
Beyond channel capability, sensitivity, and selectivity, there are other features of potential interest, the inclusion of which directly affect a unit’s price. One factor is water-resistance. Some units are more “splash-proof” than others, and thus more suitable for exposed locations; some are even rated as waterproof—submersible to a limited depth for a limited time.
Nearly all sets are capable of scanning in various modes: all channels or only selected channels. Also common is a button that allows instant, direct access to Channel 16, or 16 and 9.
Most units incorporate an automatic “dual watch” and/or scanning feature that allows you to monitor Channel 16 (as required whenever your boat is underway) plus one or more other channels on which you might be expecting to receive a call. Some sets also have “tri-watch” so that Channels 16 and 9 plus a selected channel can be concurrently monitored.
Backlit, adjustable-brightness LCDs display the radio’s operational status: U.S. or International (and sometimes also Canadian) Channel selection; high/low power; channel in use. If connected to a GPS receiver, the LCD may display latitude and longitude and may provide additional navigation information, including SOG, COG, date, and time. Some sets are available with wired or wireless microphones that include channel selection controls; others provide full remote control of all functions.
Most installed VHF receivers have the capability of feeding a remotely located auxiliary speaker so that a watch can be kept below decks; some can be used as a loud hailer and automatic foghorn.
All VHF radios can monitor NOAA VHF Weather Radio broadcasts. A weather alert function in some sets will sound a distinctive audio alert tone on receipt of a hazardous weather alert. Some can be programmed to respond only to those alerts that apply to the vessel’s position.
Digital Selective Calling
DIGITAL SELECTIVE CALLING (DSC) is a hailing system designed to improve the way in which communication is established between stations communicating in the MF, HF, and VHF marine bands. DSC is an important component of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS). The use of DSC hailing eliminates the need to hail another station by voice call and includes the ability to transmit certain messages, including Mayday calls, automatically. The mandatory listening watch on the voice-hailing channels such as VHF 16 is unchanged.
DSC uses a digital transmission to send a specific set of data, including the caller’s MMSI (Maritime Mobile Service Identity), a nine-digit number that identifies the vessel; the requested working frequency; priority of the call; and other data. DSC calls can be made to an individual ship or shore station; a group of stations, such as a fleet of boats cruising together; a specific set of stations, such as all USCG units; or all receivers within range, such as for distress calls or if the called station’s MMSI is not known. The called station automatically responds with a DSC signal, after which voice contact is made on Channel 16 if it is a distress situation, or on a designated working channel if it is not. A DSC-equipped vessel or shore station can make a hailing call on Channel 70 to establish contact with automatic switching to a working channel without calling on Channel 16. The MMSI is assigned by FCC on the station license. Boats not required to have a license can get one from BoatU.S., Sea Tow, the U.S. Power Squadrons, or Shine Micro. It is very important that the registration data be kept up to date—report all changes immediately as they occur.
DSC distress calls can include the vessel’s location, either directly transferred from a GPS receiver or entered manually. Calls can indicate the specific nature of the distress, such as “sinking,” “on fire,” etc.
DSC Types There are various classes of DSC radios. In the U.S., boats may use a VHF radio with SC-101 capabilities; such sets are capable of sending and receiving distress, safety, and routine calls using DSC. SC-101 radios have only one receiver and cannot monitor Channel 70 when the set is transmitting or receiving on another channel. The better, Class D radios have a second receiver that continuously monitors Channel 70 for DSC calls even when the primary radio is receiving (not transmitting) on another channel; see Figure 20-06. Class A DSC radios include a second receiver for Channel 70 that is active even when the set is transmitting on another frequency. Additional features include calling number memory and a keypad similar to that found on conventional telephones; this simplifies the entry of the MMSI number of a station that you wish to call.
VHF radios that do not have DSC capability may continue to be used; however, the very significant safety and routine communication advantages provided by the DSC system are more than sufficient to warrant consideration of installing a DSC-capable set. Both the Class D, dual-receiver models and the less-capable singlereceiver (SC-101) radios will provide full interaction with the Coast Guard’s Rescue 21 system.
In any event, a wise skipper will compare the latest specifications and features of a number of units in a given price range before making a final selection of VHF/FM radiotelephone equipment.
Figure 20-06 VHF transceivers must now have at least a minimal capability of Digital Selective Calling (DSC). Sets with a numeric keypad are advantageous for entering the nine-digit MMSI (Maritime Mobile Service Identity) number for the station or stations you wish to call. Many sets will have memory storage for frequently used MMSIs.
Handheld Units
In recent years, small portable (as opposed to full-size installed) VHF/FM radios have gained significantly in popularity. Generally referred to as handheld units, this type is fitted with an integral microphone, speaker, and antenna, as well as a rechargeable battery; see Figure 20-07. Advances in rechargeable battery technology, including the universal use of nickelmetal hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion (Li-on) have greatly benefited handheld radios, extending operating time before recharging to as much as 20 hours (5% transmitting, 5% receiving audio, 90% receiver standby). Maximum transmit power output ranges from 3 to 6 watts, plus the mandatory 1-watt low power setting. Most radios are supplied complete with both 120-volt AC and 12-volt DC battery chargers. AA or AAA alkaline cells can be used in many radios if the rechargeable battery is depleted.
Figure 20-07 Small handheld VHF transceivers now have essentially all the features of a full-size installed set, except for output power. These include coverage of all channels, dual-watch, scanning in one or more modes, one-button switching to Channel 16 (and on some sets to 16 and 9), and other features such as Weather Alert.
Most handheld radios provide a means for connecting an external microphone/earphone. Bluetooth wireless headsets can be used with some models. The radio’s short “rubber duck” antenna is attached using a coaxial connector and can be removed to allow an adapter to be used, allowing the radio to connect to a fixed-mount antenna that will significantly increase the strength of the radiated signal. The degree to which a radio will withstand exposure to the marine environment ranges from JIS4, splashproof, to JIS7, submersible to a depth of 1 meter for 30 minutes, or IPX8, continuous immersion.
Many of the operating modes and features available in fixed-mount VHF radios, such as multichannel scanning and weather alert, are included in handheld radios. A few models have a digital selective calling capability with the SC-101 specification (one receiver only). Some DSC handheld radios obtain GPS position information via a connection in the radio’s charging cradle; others have an integral GPS receiver. Some models can operate on FRS channels and receive AM and FM broadcasts.
A handheld unit can be valuable as follows:
• For communication between a dinghy or tender and the vessel that it accompanies.
• As a backup for the regular radiotelephone.
• On larger vessels, where it is sometimes useful to have a radio capability when away from the regular installation.
• For two-way emergency communication in the event of having to abandon ship.
Remember that it is not legal to use a VHF handheld radio to communicate with the vessel’s main radio from a position on board that vessel. In other words, you cannot legally use a marine radio for intercom purposes. There are, however, FRS radios with headsets that can be used to talk between two locations on board. These are full-duplex units without push-to-talk buttons.
Handhelds also have other limitations. They have limited output power. Their integral antennas are much shorter and less efficient, and are, naturally, situated no higher than the hand that holds the unit. These factors combine to make handhelds unsuitable for anything more than relatively close-in communications. And so, while they definitely have their place, they are rarely, if ever, an adequate substitute for fullpower, fully featured installed sets.
Contrary to all-too-common practice, handheld VHF/FM marine radiotelephones are not authorized as walk-around, portable units. Except for licensed stationary shore stations, mobile marine radio is authorized only for shipboard use (which includes yachts and tenders). Using a handheld from an onshore location—for example, to call your vessel from a shoreside shop—is a violation of the marine radiotelephone regulations.
Installation & Maintenance
Most of today’s fixed-mount VHF/FM radiotelephones come from the factory fully tested and ready to operate, requiring only connection to a power source and an appropriate antenna. Installation does not necessarily require the services of a trained technician.
If you choose to install one of these units yourself, it’s important to keep a few points in mind. When hooking the radio up to the vessel’s DC electrical system, be certain that correct polarity is observed and that an appropriate in-line fuse is used. (Refer to Chapter 19 and the radiotelephone manufacturer’s installation instructions.) Mount the unit in as protected a location as possible, consistent with convenient use for both receiving and transmitting; because the speaker contains a powerful magnet, it should not be placed close to a compass. As some heat is generated from the operation of the set, allow for adequate ventilation around the case. When mounting the unit, remember that it’s necessary to run not only power to it, but the antenna cable as well. Never attempt to splice coaxial cable, but instead employ, when necessary, appropriate cable connectors (PL-259 with appropriate reducer for smaller cables,), which are available at any marine electronics dealer or electronics store. And avoid sharp bends in the antenna cable by employing, if necessary, a right-angle cable connector like the Shakespeare 259-239-G. Make sure that all coaxial cable connections are correctly made; use properly soldered connectors, which are much more reliable in a marine environment than so-called solderless connectors. Finally, be sure to ground the radio case according to manufacturer’s recommendations. Although a radio frequency (RF) ground is not necessary for the operation of a VHF/FM radiotelephone, it will help eliminate interference from adjacent electronic equipment.
Once a VHF/FM radiotelephone is installed, there is very little maintenance that can be performed by any operator who is not also a trained radio technician; fortunately, very little is needed. It’s wise to inspect the antenna and power line connections periodically for signs of resistance-inducing corrosion. And the same is true for the ferrules of in-line fuses. Any corrosion should be removed, and any soldered connections redone if broken or deteriorated.
FCC regulations (47CFR Ch. 1 [10-1-03 Edition °80.310]) require that any vessel equipped with a marine VHF radio maintain a listening watch on Channel 16 and, if DSCequipped, on Channel 70 whenever the vessel is underway and the radio is not being used to communicate. The receive-mode power drain of the radio is minimal—typically less than 1 ampere. Recreational vessels may alternatively maintain a watch on Channel 9 for call and reply purposes. The loudspeaker need not be on when maintaining a DSC watch.
A fixed-mount VHF radio that is used regularly requires no special maintenance other than occasional cleaning with fresh water and inspection for deterioration of the microphone cable and for signs of corrosion on the antenna and power connections.
Be sure to follow the manufacturer’s instructions regarding initial charging of the battery in a handheld radio. Many handhelds have removable antennas with BNC connectors; these can be connected to an installed antenna by use of an adapter (e.g., Radio Shack No. 278-120).
Operating Rules & Procedures
A vessel equipped with a marine VHF radio may use any means at its disposal to attract attention, make known its position, and obtain help. A distress call and message, however, must be transmitted only on the authority of the master or person responsible for the mobile station. No person shall knowingly transmit or cause to be transmitted any false or fraudulent signal of distress or related communication. If the person responsible for the station is incapacitated and a life-threatening situation exists, anyone may make a distress call. A distress call has absolute priority over all other transmissions.
Establishing Contact
Calls not related to distress or safety may be initiated on Channel 16, but such transmissions must be limited to establishing contact and determining a working channel (see below) to be used. Any single calling transmission must not exceed 30 seconds’ duration, and if no reply is received, a 2-minute pause must be observed before repeating the call. A maximum of three call attempts, separated by 2-minute silences, may be made before a 15-minute silence must be observed (this silence may be reduced to 3 minutes if the call transmissions will not interfere with traffic from other stations). No transmissions on Channel 16 may exceed 1 minute. These limitations do not apply to emergency situations. Nonemergency transmissions on Channel 16 are absolutely limited to reaching agreement on the working channel to be used; not even the briefest messages are to be transmitted.
In order to lessen congestion on Channel 16, which has been steadily increasing, the FCC has authorized the voluntary use of Channel 9 by noncommercial vessels for initial calls. You are cautioned, however, that maintaining a watch for calls on Channel 9 does not relieve you of the legal requirement for maintaining a watch on Channel 16. Listening on that channel is necessary to hear warnings and announcements from the Coast Guard as well as distress calls from other vessels. Remember, Channel 16 is the only channel to be used for distress traffic. If you have a set with the dual-watch or triwatch feature, it will be possible for you to simultaneously monitor both Channels 16 and 9.
Use of digital selective calling to initiate communication with another vessel is highly recommended.
After Contact Has Been Made
Once contact is established on an appropriate working channel (see below), the ensuing exchange of transmission must be:
• Of a legally permissible nature
• Of the minimum possible duration
The phonetic alphabet (see “International Flags and Pennants insert”) should be used to spell call signs, names, places, etc., only when absolutely necessary to ensure clarity. In most circumstances, when reception is clear, use of phonetics, while it sounds “professional” to some, only prolongs exchanges unnecessarily.
Further, superfluous words and phrases, such as “Do you read me?” and “Come in, Bluejay” should be avoided as much as possible in order to shorten transmission times. And to avoid unnecessary interference with other transmissions on the same frequency, the minimum practical transmitting power setting must, by law, be used—1 watt will suffice more often than you might think.
Station Identification
Licensed stations with call signs must identify themselves at the start and end of an exchange of transmissions; it is not necessary to again state the call sign upon shifting to a working channel. Boats now without call signs must also identify themselves, but do so routinely by stating the vessel’s name.
The Privacy of Communications
The Communications Act of 1934 as subsequently amended and the radio operating rules issued by the FCC forbid any person from divulging, except to the intended addressee or his authorized agent, any information gained from receiving or intercepting any radio transmissions not addressed to him, and from using to his own benefit any such information. This does not apply to distress communications or to public broadcasts, but it does apply to all other conversations.
Priority Channels
The most important frequency on the VHF radiotelephone band is Channel 16 (156.8 MHz), the international distress, safety, and calling frequency. It is on Channel 16 that all Mayday, Pan-Pan (pronounced “pahn-pahn”) and Securite (pronounced “saycuritay”) calls are made (refer to Chapter 12).
Mayday calls are absolute first-priority distress calls involving imminent danger of loss of life or vessel. Pan-Pan calls are secondpriority urgent communications concerning the safety of a ship, aircraft, other vessel, or person in sight or on board. Securite calls are thirdpriority safety messages concerning navigation or weather. When a transmission is preceded by one of these priority call identifiers, other operators must stay clear of the channel (even if that means cutting short a communication in progress) until it is clear that the priority call has been concluded.
It’s important to understand and use these priority signal identifiers correctly, as misuse, especially of the Mayday signal, can cause dangerous confusion and expensive false alarms. For example, while running aground on a falling tide in a calm sea a short distance from shore may be inconvenient, it does not generally warrant a Mayday call. If, in such a case, your stranded vessel would be a hazard to navigation, say in a heavy fog, such a situation might warrant a Securite call, but probably just a normal call to the Coast Guard to ask them to switch to their working channel, then advising them of your situation and location, would be more in order. The same is true if you have simply run out of fuel, or if your engine has died or won’t start.
Channel 16, the international hailing channel, may be used to establish initial contact with another vessel in international and US waters. Calls for a “radio check” to an undesignated vessel or shore station are prohibited on Channel 16. However, DSC hailing to a known MMSI totally eliminates congestion on Channel 16 (the digital hailing signal is sent on Channel 70) and provides greater assurance that the hailed vessel will recognize the arrival of the incoming call, since an alert tone will be heard even if the speaker volume is at a low or off setting. A DSC “All Ships” hailing call is a very effective method for establishing communication with ships on the high seas.
Mayday Calls
Transmit a DSC Mayday call if so equipped, followed immediately by a voice Mayday call on Channel 16. The DSC call will repeat automatically until acknowledged by the Coast Guard. If there is no response to your voice calls, make a Mayday call on any channel on which you have heard other traffic.
If your DSC Mayday call is received by the Coast Guard, their acknowledgement signal will terminate the ongoing automatic repetition of your radio’s DSC Mayday call and switch your radio to Channel 16 in preparation for Coast Guard–initiated voice communication. Your DSC call will have provided the Coast Guard with your vessel’s MMSI and, assuming the radio is properly connected to a GPS receiver, your precise position; however, they may ask you to verify the position and for additional information useful in their effort to provide the assistance you require. Respond clearly and as calmly as possible to all questions, and follow their directions.
If it becomes necessary to abandon ship, inform the Coast Guard of your planned action and take your handheld radio with you, turned on and tuned to Channel 16. The Rescue 21 system is designed to be able to communicate with a handheld radio transmitting on the 1-watt power setting at distances up to 20 nautical miles.
IN THE BEGINNING …
When VHF radios first became available for recreational boats, a pair of crystals—one for each receiving and one for each transmitting frequency—were required (except a single crystal for simplex channels). Space was limited, so most sets had provisions for only 12 channels, and some were limited to just six. Crystals were relatively expensive, and to keep the cost of the sets down, not all channels were activated (even so, the costs were several times what they are today). For boat-to-boat communications, there were all the present channels, plus Channel 70—few if any craft were sold set up to talk on all 12 channels. To make contacts between skippers more practical, manufacturers decided that all sets would have at least one common channel for intership contacts, and that this would be Channel 68. The habit of saying “Switch to 68” persists today—even among many boaters, recreational and commercial, who don’t know how it started. There’s nothing magic about 68; there is much to be gained by using 69, 71, 72, or 78A—clearer, less busy channels. So the next time you need to shift off of 16, try using one of the other channels.
Working Channels
VHF/FM radio operations are much facilitated by having enough channels to assign separate ones for the different types of communications, and even for various types of vessels. The success of the VHF marine radio service depends upon the use of the correct channel for the specific type of communications and vessels involved.
Features of the VHF service are the assignment of different channels to commercial and noncommercial vessels for operational communication, and the limited range of VHF, which excludes interference from stations 30 to 50 miles or more away. Noncommercial craft are assigned five exclusive channels for intership traffic (plus additional ones in specific limited geographic areas); commercial vessels have 12 other channels of their own. The most used intership noncommercial channel is 68; it is greatly overused in preference to other available channels; see the sidebar, “In the Beginning …” and refer to Table 20-1. Channel 9 (also called 09) can be used by both noncommercial and commercial vessels. Channel 13, Navigation Safety (also known as the bridge-to-bridge channel) is available for all ships.
Ship-shore communications to a MARINE OPERATOR (in FCC terms, a PUBLIC COAST STATION) are possible on a number of channels. Each station is assigned one or more of the channels shown. (There are very few of these stations left in service as a result of the wide popularity of cell phones.)
Ship-to-shore radio contacts are also possible on VHF with yacht clubs, marinas, and similar PRIVATE COAST STATIONS, as they are designated in the FCC Rules; these use other channels such as 9, 68, 69, 71, or 78A.
Channel 22 (properly called 22 Alpha and designated 22A) is the Coast Guard Liaison and Maritime Safety channel and is used by them to announce urgent marine information and storm warnings and for non-emergency communication with the Coast Guard.
Channel 13 (67 in some areas) is restricted to “bridge-to-bridge” communications. The term “bridge” originally meant only the control station of a vessel, and the channel was used for directing the safe passage of vessels past one another. More recently, this channel has been authorized for use for communications with the operating personnel of drawbridges to request and acknowledge openings (see Chapter 5). Large vessels, tugs, and dredges in channels must GUARD (maintain a listening watch on) this in addition to Channel 16. It is used with abbreviated operating procedures to ensure navigational safety while maneuvering in close quarters. It must not be used for any other purpose, and power is limited to 1 watt. It is not required for recreational craft, but may often be of use, especially where drawbridges are radio equipped.
Under limited conditions, aircraft are authorized to use Channels 6 and 16; 9, 68, and 72; and 8, 18, and 67 for communications with ships and boats.
Channel 70 is reserved for transmission of Digital Selective Calling (DSC) distress and hailing calls. The brief digital hailing message identifies the type of call being made, the station making the call, and—for individual or group calls—the Maritime Mobile Service Identity (MMSI) of the station being called. Distress calls and “All Station” calls will be received by, and alert, the operators of all DSC radios in range of the transmitting radio. The digital, errorcorrected DSC signal is more likely to be received in adverse reception conditions than a voice call. A DSC hailing to an individual station or group of stations will sound an alert on the station(s) called, is more efficient and effective than voice hailing, and removes traffic from Channel 16, the primary voice channel for distress communication. DSC hailing channels are also assigned in the MF and HF bands.
Channel assignments in Canada are generally the same as those used in the U.S., with the exception of channels normally reserved for use only by commercial vessels. Weather broadcast channel assignments are identical, although use varies by region. Most radios provide three channel assignment menus: U/C/I for U.S., Canadian, and International. Be sure to select the correct menu.
Modern VHF sets are capable of transmitting on many more channels than are authorized for any particular type of craft. All boat skippers—commercial and noncommercial—should learn just which channels they are authorized to communicate on, and use only them, to avoid receiving violation citations from the FCC.
OPERATING PROCEDURES
Ship-to-ship communications are usually initiated on Channel 16. Immediately after contact is established, both are required to shift to a “working” channel. A typical contact and shift would proceed roughly as follows:
“Bluejay … Bluejay, this is Desolate, over.” (Boat names can be repeated up to three times each, but this is not normally necessary, and is undesirable as it lengthens transmissions.)
“Desolate” (repeated only if necessary because of poor conditions) “this is Bluejay, over.”
“Bluejay, this is Desolate. Switch six-nine, over.”
“This is Bluejay. Roger, six-nine, out.”
(It is desirable to acknowledge the number of the working channel to avoid possible loss of contact when switching due to misunderstanding.)
(Both stations retune to Channel 69.)
“Bluejay, this is Desolate, over.”
“Desolate, this is Bluejay, over.”
(After the necessary exchange of information, either party terminates the call as follows):
“Desolate [or Bluejay], out.”
The procedure words “over” and “out” should never be used together as they have contrary meanings. “Over” (meaning “I require a reply”) should be used at the end of each transmission. “Out” (meaning “I do not require a reply”) should be used by only one station at the end of the communication, and lets other stations know that they can use the channel. The procedure word “roger” (meaning “received and understood”) should never be said more than once.
When the MMSI of another vessel or shore station is known, DSC hailing should be used in place of a voice-hailing call on Channel 16. Reception of the call at the called vessel’s radio will be clearly announced regardless of the setting of the radio’s volume control. If the called radio is set to receive incoming DSC calls, it can automatically switch to the working channel selected by the caller. Communication can begin at once, with no need to use Channel 16.
“Radio check” calls are prohibited on Channel 16. Hailing calls intended to verify the operational status of the radio are permitted if they are made to a specific vessel or a local towing service or other shore station. Many towing service companies will respond to hailing calls made to their MMSIs. The numbers are available from the service companies that have DSC radio equipment.
Radio Information Services
In the U.S., marine weather information and forecasts are broadcast continuously from many locations by the National Weather Service. In Canada and many other countries, similar continuous weather broadcasts are made by equivalent government agencies.
VHF marine radios have a switch-selectable capability for receiving such broadcasts. There are seven U.S. continuous weather broadcast channels in current use, but nearly all stations use one of the first three. The location, channel number, and coverage area of NWS continuous VHF broadcasts are indicated on Marine Weather Service Charts published by NOAA. On the Internet, go to www.nws.noaa.gov/nwr to access information on these stations state by state, including location, frequency (but not channel number such as WX-1), and probable coverage area. The Canadian weather service uses the same frequencies; go to http://www.msc.ec.gc.ca/msb/weatheradio/index_e.cfm for station location, frequency, and other information. For a table to be used in converting frequencies to WX channel numbers, go to www.navcen.uscg.gov; other useful frequency information will also be found at this website.
The U.S. Coast Guard may broadcast special safety information, including weather summaries and forecasts, on Channel 22A, the Coast Guard’s assigned working channel. Such special broadcasts are preceded by an alerting announcement (and possible warning tone) transmitted on Channel 16.
MF-HF SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB) RADIO SERVICE
VHF radio is intended mainly for short-range communications. Reliable direct voice communication over distances greater than about 25 miles (depending on antenna heights) requires the use either of medium-frequency (MF) and/or highfrequency (HF) radiotelephones, or equipment that sends signals to relaying communications satellites. Satellite communications are discussed in a later section.
Marine radiotelephone equipment that operates in the MF and HF bands is today universally, and by international treaty, of the single sideband (SSB) variety; see Figure 20-08. SSB is amplitude modulated, though it utilizes only a single sideband adjacent to, rather than double sidebands on either side of, a carrier wave. MF and HF marine radio is sometimes referred to as AM radio, but this is a holdover from the days when marine MF and HF sets were of the double sideband (DSB) type—it’s currently more accurate and usual to use the term “SSB” when referring to them.
Figure 20-08 MF-HF single sideband (SSB) transceivers are sold and installed with pretuned channels for many frequencies. A general knowledge of the propagation characteristics of the different frequency bands, and a bit of experience, is needed for the selection of the best band to use at a particular time of day to communicate over a given distance.
Licensing MF-HF Radios A vessel cannot be licensed for SSB radiotelephone unless it is already equipped with a VHF/FM set. Moreover, in order to help ease the crowding on the MF and HF bands, an SSB operator is required by law to attempt communication on VHF before using the 2–3 MHz band or higher frequencies—unless the transmitting station is clearly beyond normal VHF range. (MF and HF transmissions carry for very great distances because of signal “bounce,” and SSB signals tend to interfere with one another.)
In most cases, a Restricted Radiotelephone Operator permit is sufficient licensing for SSB operation. That permit is good for equipment up to and including 100-watts carrier wave power or 400-watts peak envelope power (PEP). Higherlevel licenses, such as the Marine Radio Operator permit and various commercial radio operator licenses, are valid for SSB operation.
Figure 20-09 Single sideband (SSB) radios are desirable, even necessary, for boats that are going to cruise beyond reliable VHF range. Many sets are e-mail capable; some are equipped with DSC. Installation will normally benefit from the services of a properly trained and licensed technician.
Selection of SSB Sets
SSB transceivers are commonly available with peak envelope output power from 50 to 150 watts. Unlike the range of VHF transmissions, which is essentially line-of-sight and remains relatively unaffected by output power, the range of SSB transmissions is affected by, among other things, the strength of the radiated signal.
By regulation, all marine SSB radiotelephone stations in the 2-3 MHz band must be able to operate on 2182 kHz, the international distress and calling frequency (the DSC equivalent is 2187.5 kHz). They must also be able to operate on at least two other frequencies. However, in order to achieve maximum utility from an SSB installation, the savvy skipper will usually pick a set with a much wider frequency capability, as frequency selection affects range. Most sets will have the desirable feature of one-button selection of 2182 kHz distress frequency, and some systems will automatically generate the radiotelephone alarm signal on this channel. The frequencies 4125, 6215, 8291, and 12290 kHz may be used for distress and initial calling only. These are all monitored continuously or for various periods of the day by Coast Guard shore communications stations.
The maximum reliable range of SSB transmission in the 2-3 MHz (MF) band during the day is 50 to 150 miles. Transmission in the HF bands can reach for thousands of miles, depending on a number of factors such as the frequency used, atmospheric noise and other interference, the time of day, even the level of sunspot activity. The likely range of signals in the HF bands is discussed earlier in this chapter.
There are working frequencies in the MF band and each of the HF bands—two, three, or more, some simplex and some half-duplex (often listed as simply “duplex”) in each band. Operating frequencies are usually referred to by a channel number rather than a value in megahertz. These designations consist of three or four digits in which the first one or two are derived from the frequency band in megahertz and the final two digits are assigned sequentially.
Not all HF/SSB radiotelephones are capable of operating on all eight available bands. Less expensive equipment will typically operate on the lower bands—these are fully adequate for skippers who do not need to communicate over the vast distances requiring the higher-frequency bands. Current models use a frequency synthesizer and can operate on any frequency within their overall range, but are factory set to transmit and receive only on authorized channels that can be accessed by simple push-button keypad operation.
Digital Selective Calling (DSC) is also available on SSB sets. DSC-equipped SSB radiotelephones can automatically alert an operator to a call incoming on any of a number of bands without the need to maintain an audio watch. Information on the incoming call will be shown on the radio’s display screen, and all of the information in a distress call will be recorded; in the case of a distress call being received, the set will be automatically switched to 2.182 MHz or an appropriate higher distress frequency.
Skippers who plan to cruise to areas where VHF and MF radio does not afford adequate communications should consider MF-HF sets that can transmit and receive on the working channels used by the Coast Guard for high-seas emergency, voice-weather, navigation information, and medical communications. For information on these channels, go to www.navcen.uscg.gov.
Some models of marine MF-HF equipment are capable of operating on amateur radio bands if properly licensed for such use. However, the reverse is not true—sets sold for amateur radio use may be capable of operating on marine frequencies, but should not be used for this purpose as they are not “type accepted” by the FCC for marine communications.
Other MF & HF Channels
There are many simplex frequencies and halfduplex frequency pairs in the 2–3 MHz band and in each HF band—too many to list here. Normally, when a marine SSB set is purchased, a list of frequencies or channels is included in or with the operator’s manual. The transceiver will have been factory-tuned to these channels, and all the operator has to do is to know which ones can be used to meet his or her particular communications needs. SSB sets normally have extensive memory capabilities for storing the settings for frequencies and channels commonly used; many of these will have been preprogrammed by the manufacturer.
Information on MF and HF channels and their specific uses can be obtained from the U.S. Coast Guard Navigation Information Center at www.navcen.uscg.gov/marcomms.
Installation of MF-HF Radios
Installation of MF-HF equipment usually benefits from the services of a trained and licensed technician. Most SSB sets today come pretested and adjusted. Unlike VHF/FM radio, a SSB set requires a large GROUND PLANE in order to radiate its signals—which, except on metal hulls, needs to be installed in the form of a large copper mesh panel installed in contact with the interior surface of the below-water part of a fiberglass hull. As well, SSB is much more subject to interference from shipboard electrical equipment, and so often requires the installation of special isolators and noise-suppression filters in the vessel’s electrical system. Sets equipped for DSC should be connected to a GPS receiver so that geographic position information will be transmitted in distress calls and can optionally be sent in routine communications. SSB radios are larger than VHF sets and often come in two units, a “control head” and a “black box” with the remainder of the circuitry.
With MF-HF sets, antenna selection and installation is also more complicated, since SSB generally requires a physically much longer antenna than VHF, and different antenna “tuning” for different bands. Antennas are employed in both “long wire” and whip form, and most SSB systems currently incorporate automatic antenna-tuning couplers. The final choice of one or more antennas should be made in consultation with a qualified technician and in view of the physical limitations imposed by one’s vessel and rigging. Sets equipped with Class D DSC have a second receiver for continuously monitoring DSC frequencies, and this will require a second antenna, which can be a simple whip or short length of wire; no tuner is required.
THE GLOBAL MARITIME DISTRESS & SAFETY SYSTEM (GMDSS)
After the invention of radio at the end of the 19th century, ships at sea relied on Morse code, invented by Samuel Morse and first used in 1844, for distress and safety telecommunications; refer to Figure 20-16. The need for ship and coast radio stations to have and use radiotelegraph equipment and to listen to a common radio frequency for Morse-encoded distress calls was recognized after the sinking of the liner Titanic in the North Atlantic in 1912. The U.S. Congress enacted legislation soon afterward requiring U.S. ships to use Morse code radiotelegraph equipment for distress calls. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU), now a United Nations agency, followed suit for ships of all nations. Morse-code distress calling saved thousands of lives since its inception almost a century ago, but its use requires skilled radio operators spending many hours listening to the radio distress frequency. Its range on the mediumfrequency (MF) distress band (500 kHz) was limited, and the amount of traffic Morse signals could carry was also limited.
The Development of GMDSS
The International Maritime Organization (IMO), a United Nations agency specializing in safety of shipping and preventing ships from polluting the seas, began looking at ways of improving maritime distress and safety communications in the mid-1970s. In 1979, a group of experts drafted the International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue, which called for development of a global search and rescue plan. This group also passed a resolution calling for development by IMO of a Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) to provide the communication support needed to implement the search and rescue plan. This new system, which the world’s maritime nations, including the United States, have implemented, is based upon a combination of satellite and terrestrial radio services, and has changed international distress communications from being primarily ship-to-ship based to ship-to-shore (Rescue Coordination Center) based. It ended the mandatory requirement for Morse code communication by commercial vessels. The GMDSS provides for automatic distress alerting and locating in cases where a radio operator doesn’t have time to send an SOS or Mayday call, and, for the first time, requires ships to receive broadcasts of maritime safety information that could prevent a distress from happening in the first place. In 1988, IMO amended the Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS), requiring ships subject to it to fit GMDSS equipment. Such ships were required to carry NAVTEX and satellite EPIRBs (see following) by 1993, and had to fit all other GMDSS equipment by 1999. U.S. ships were allowed to fit GMDSS in lieu of Morse telegraphy equipment by the Telecommunications Act of 1996.
The GMDSS consists of several systems, some of which are new but many of which have been in operation for years. The system is able to reliably perform the following functions: alerting (including position determination of the unit in distress), search and rescue coordination, locating (homing), maritime safety information broadcasts, general communications, and bridge-to-bridge communications. Specific radio carriage requirements depend upon the ship’s area of operation (see following) rather than its tonnage. The system also provides redundant means of distress alerting and emergency sources of power.
Features of GMDSS
The Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) is an automated ship-to-shore system using satellites and digital selective calling (DSC) technology. Significant advantages are provided over the former system. GMDSS:
• Provides worldwide ship-to-shore alerting; it is not dependent upon passing ships.
• Simplifies radio operations; alerts may be sent by two simple actions.
• Ensures redundancy of communications; it requires two separate systems for alerting.
• Enhances search and rescue; operations are coordinated from shore centers.
• Minimizes unanticipated emergencies at sea; maritime safety broadcasts are included.
• Eliminates reliance on a single person for communications; it requires at least two licensed GMDSS radio operators and typically two maintenance methods to ensure distress communications capability at all times.
Sea Areas
GMDSS uses four coverage areas: A1, A2, A3, and A4 to cover the sea areas of the world for distress watchkeeping.
• Sea Area A1 is within radiotelephone range of at least one VHF/DSC coast station (about 20–30 NM).
• Sea Area A2 is an area within MF range of a coast station fitted with DSC (about 150 miles).
• Sea Area A3 is an area covered by the Inmarsat Satellite System (excluding Al and A2 areas).
• Sea Area A4 is basically the polar regions, which are not covered by the above.
GMDSS Components
The GMDSS consists of a number of components that are being implemented in a coordinated and agreed-upon manner. These include:
The COSPAS-SARSAT System
COSPAS-SARSAT is an international satellitebased search-and-rescue (SAR) system established by Canada, France, the U.S., and Russia. Operational use of COSPAS-SARSAT began with the rescue response to an airplane crash in Canada in 1982; since then, some 24,000 lives have been saved through COSPAS-SARSAT from aircraft and vessels in distress. The operational core of the system is provided by two groups of satellites, one in low-earth orbit (LEOSAR satellites) and the other in geostationary orbit at higher altitude (GEOSAR satellites). Together, these satellites provide worldwide reception of distress signals at all times, relaying those signals to ground receiving stations known as local user terminals (LUTs). These process the signals and forward them to mission control centers (MCCs), which in turn forward them to rescue coordination centers (RCCs) for response.
Emergency Position-Indicating RadioBeacon (EPIRB)
Every boat that goes offshore beyond reliable VHF radio range—roughly 20 miles (37 km)—should carry an EPIRB (emergency positionindicating radiobeacon). The original models, which should no longer be used, operated on two frequencies: 121.5 MHz, the emergency channel for civilian planes, and 243.0 MHz, the “guard” channel for military aircraft. First-generation EPIRBs suffered from interference on their working frequencies, and the units had a high incidence of false alarms—as many as 95-plus percent of such EPIRB alerts were determined to be nonemergency situations. Because of this, the processing of signals from Class A and B units by the COSPAS-SARSAT system was discontinued on 1 February 2009. Only 406 MHz signals are now monitored.
Figure 20-10 A position-indicating radiobeacon (EPIRB) of the newer type operating on 406 MHz is an essential safety item for a boat cruising farther from shore than reliable VHF radio range. When activated, a distress signal is picked up by an orbiting or geostationary satellite and relayed to rescue authorities ashore. All “406” EPIRBs transmit an identification number that has been registered with government authorities after purchase. Advanced models can be interfaced with a GPS receiver to include the position of the vessel; some units even have an internal GPS receiver that can continue to send location data even after being carried off from an abandoned vessel.
The Second Generation
Advances in technology have led to the development of a new type, referred to as a “406” EPIRB—the name derived from its operating frequency of 406.0 MHz. This is a dedicated frequency free of interference from other communications. Beacon signals are picked up by orbiting satellites of COSPAS-SARSAT. The distress signals are transmitted to a ground station and passed on to rescue authorities. If a ground station is not in view when the distress signals are received, they are stored by the satellite for retransmission when one comes within range. The distress signals can also be received and relayed by GEOS weather satellites and other geostationary satellites of the GEOSAR system.
When COSPAS-SARSAT satellites are used, position is determined by the Doppler effect of the signals and may take 1 to 2 hours. Location is determined within 1 to 3 miles (2 to 5 km). If the signals are detected by a GEOSAR satellite, the distress alert is immediate but no position information is provided.
A major advantage of second-generation equip-ment is that each 406 EPIRB (see Figure 20-10) transmits a unique registration number for identification. Each unit is entered into a database that provides vital information on the vessel’s name and characteristics, its owner, a point of contact, etc. The purchaser of a 406 EPIRB is legally required to register it immediately; there are penalties for failing to comply. For information, call 888-212-7283 within the U.S. or 1-301-817-4515. The beacon may be registered online, or a registration form obtained, at www.sarsat.noaa.gov. A confirmation letter will be sent, plus a proof-of-registration decal that must be affixed to the EPIRB. In order to keep the database current, registration is for two years only, and reregistration is required. Any change in EPIRB registration data must be reported online or in writing without delay—it is essential for your safety that the information on file is correct and current. There are no fees, and registration may save your life. Once activated, EPIRBs must transmit at least 48 hours even in the most adverse circumstances.
The 406 EPIRBs are available in Category l (float-free, automatic activation, now required on SOLAS ships and commercial fishing vessels) and Category II (manual activation). Both models have a 121.5 MHz beacon for final search and a strobe light for final location. These EPIRBs are considerably more expensive, but their far greater effectiveness makes them worthwhile. Prices range from $500 to $650 for Category II units; Category I models are $50 to $100 more expensive. For occasional needs, 406 EPIRBs can be rented from the BoatU.S. Foundation for Boating Safety; 888-663-7472, or www.boatus.com/foundation/EPIRB.
PERSONAL LOCATOR BEACON (PLB)
A PERSONAL LOCATOR BEACON (PLB) can serve much the same needs of a boater as an EPIRB. A PLB is intended to be associated with an individual—a hiker, hunter, mountain climber, and of course, a boater—rather than with a vessel. It is smaller and lighter, and transmits the same 406 and 121.5 MHz signals. It transmits a distress message with identification that is specific to that unit. Some models may have an input for GPS position data, while newer models have internal GPS included. Newer models also have a strobe light, are waterproof, and will float. A crew overboard in poor visibility has a much greater chance of being rescued if equipped with a PLB.
For several years PLBs have been in wide use in Europe and other parts of the world. The sale and use of PLBs in the U.S. is authorized by the FCC. These units must be registered.
And Now We Have …
A further development is a model of a 406 EPIRB with a connection for position data from an onboard GPS receiver being used for navigation. The vessel’s position is continually updated and stored in the EPIRB every 20 minutes. Such a beacon not only alerts for a distress situation and identifies itself, it also transmits its location. Reports from GEOSAR satellites, as well as COSPAS-SARSAT, will carry position information.
And yet another development is a 406 EPIRB with an internal GPS receiver (sometimes called a “GPIRB”). Upon being activated, the GPS will determine its position within about 2 minutes and add that data to the transmitted signal. The GPS then shuts down to conserve battery power, but every 20 minutes it reactivates and provides a new position. Rescue authorities can use successive positions to determine drift should the EPIRB cease functioning.
The cost of an EPIRB with GPS interconnect capability is little more than that of a standard 406 EPIRB: $400 to $600. A GPIRB, with integral GPS receiver, is about $750 to $800. But with both such units, the distress location is clearly established to less than a half mile (0.8 km).
What might be seen by boaters as a “weakness” in the use of EPIRBs is the fact that they have no way of knowing if/when the signals have been received and rescue action initiated.
Use & Maintenance
Once any EPIRB is activated, it must be left on. To turn it off “to save the battery” severely disrupts rescue operations. Testing must be strictly limited to conditions stated in the unit’s manual.
The only maintenance required is the replacement of the battery at the intervals specified by the unit’s manual.
NAVTEX
NAVTEX is an international, automated system for instantly distributing maritime navigational warnings, weather forecasts and warnings, search-and-rescue notices, and similar safety information to ships; see Figure 20-11.
A small, low-cost, and self-contained “smart” printing radio receiver installed in the pilot house of a ship or boat checks each incoming message to see if it has been received during an earlier transmission, or if it is of a category of no interest to the ship’s master. The original NAVTEX receivers printed messages on a roll of adding-machine-size paper. Certain types of messages could be set to “nonprint.” More recent models show the information on a LCD screen, with printing possible through a connection to a personal computer’s printer.
A new ship coming into the area will receive many previously broadcast messages for the first time; ships already in the area that had already received the message won’t receive it again. No person needs to be present during a broadcast to receive vital information.
There is a large number of transmitting stations, all operating at scheduled times on 518 kHz. NAVTEX reception extends out to a range of 200 to 400 nautical miles.
Figure 20-11 A NAVTEX receiver is a small unit that receives navigation information, weather warning, search-and-rescue information, and related safety data from a series of shore stations all transmitting on the same frequency at different scheduled times. Some models print out the information on paper tape; other units display the information on an LCD screen. All received data are stored for later review.
Inmarsat
Some satellite systems operated by the International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat), are also important elements of the GMDSS. The Inmarsat A, B, M, and Fleet 77, Fleet 55, and Fleet 33 systems provide shipshore, ship-ship, and shore-ship telephone, telex, and high-speed data services, including a distress priority telephone and telex service to and from rescue coordination centers. Inmarsat M and Mini-M equipment is small and lighter, and costs much less.
The voiceless Inmarsat C and Mini-C provide ship-shore, shore-ship, and ship-ship store-andforward data and telex messaging, the capability for sending preformatted distress messages to a rescue coordination center, and the SafetyNET service, a satellite-based worldwide maritime safety information broadcast service of high-seas weather warnings, NAVAREA navigational warnings, radionavigation warnings, ice reports and warnings, and other information not provided by NAVTEX. SafetyNET works similarly to NAVTEX in areas outside NAVTEX coverage. Inmarsat C and Mini-C equipment is small and lighter, and costs much less than an Inmarsat A, B, or Fleet F77.
Inmarsat A, B, and Fleet F77 and F55 ship earth stations require relatively large gyrostabilized antennas; the antenna size of the Fleet 33, Inmarsat C, and Mini-C is much smaller.
Fleet F33 provides voice, fax, and data for smaller vessels.
Under a cooperative agreement with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin istration (NOAA), combined meteorological observations and AMVER reports can now be sent to both the USCG AMVER Center and NOAA, using an Inmarsat C ship-earth station, at no charge. There is also no charge to register for this service and to receive the necessary Inmarsat C software. For more information, see the NOAA SEAS (Shipboard Environmental [data] Acquisition System). It is strongly urged that Inmarsat C equipment have an integral satellite navigation receiver or be externally connected to a satellite navigation receiver.
High-Frequency Communications
The GMDSS includes HF radiotelephone and radiotelex (narrow-band direct-printing) equipment, with calls initiated by digital selective calling. Worldwide broadcasts of maritime safety information are also made on HF narrow-band direct printing channels.
To meet these GMDSS requirements, the Coast Guard has improved high-frequency (HF) ship-shore radio safety services from its Communication Stations to the maritime community, as well as narrow-band direct-printing broadcasts.
SART (Search-And-Rescue Radar Transponder)
The GMDSS installation on ships includes one or more search-and-rescue radar transponders, devices that are used to locate survival craft or distressed vessels by creating a series of dots on a rescuing ship’s X-band (3 cm) radar display. The detection range between these devices and ships, dependent upon the height of the ship’s radar mast and the height of the SART, is normally about eight nautical miles. Note that a marine radar may not detect a SART even within this distance if the radar settings are not optimized for SART detection.
Digital Selective Calling
The IMO also introduced digital selective calling (DSC) on VHF, MF, and HF maritime radios as part of the GMDSS system. DSC distress alerts, which consist of a preformatted distress message, are used to initiate emergency communications with ships and rescue coordination centers. The VHF, MF, and HF DSC systems can automatically respond to an incoming distress, “All Ships,” or routine hailing call and will alert a watchstander regardless of the setting of the receiving radio’s volume control. As a result, the requirement for an audio listening watch on 2182 kHz was discontinued in 1999. All vessels and shore stations must continue to maintain a listening watch on VHF Channel 16, however.
It is urged that DSC-equipped VHF and MF/HF radios be externally connected to a satellite navigation receiver. That connection will ensure that accurate location information is sent to a rescue coordination center if a distress alert is ever transmitted. FCC regulations require that an updated position be manually entered into the radio every four hours on any ship required to carry GMDSS equipment.
Since most SOLAS ships have discontinued watchkeeping on MF radiotelephone channels, other vessels will have to use DSC-equipped radios to contact these ships, particularly in passing situations, and especially when outside U.S. waters. It is considered essential that VHF, MF, and HF radiotelephone equipment carried on ships should include a DSC capability as a matter of safety. To achieve this, the FCC has required that all VHF and MF/HF maritime radiotelephones type-accepted after June 1999 have at least a basic DSC capability.
VHF digital selective calling also has other capabilities beyond those required for the GMDSS. The Coast Guard uses this system to track vessels in Prince William Sound, Alaska, Vessel Traffic Service. IMO and the USCG also require ships carry a Universal Automatic Identification System (AIS), which will be DSC-compatible. Countries having a GMDSS A1 Area will be able to identify and track AIS-equipped vessels in its waters without any additional radio equipment.
A DSC radio may, at the option of the operator, be set to respond to a position request signal by transmitting latitude and longitude information from a connected GPS receiver.
Use of GMDSS for Routine Communications
GMDSS telecommunications equipment should not be reserved for emergency use only. The International Maritime Organization in COMSAR Circular 17 encourages mariners to use that equipment for routine as well as safety telecommunications.
AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AIS)
Most small-craft skippers may not be participating actively in the AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AIS) for ships, but they should have general knowledge of what it is and how it works.
AIS is a major advance in safety at sea. It allows ships to exchange identity (MMSI number), position, course and speed over ground, and rate of turn. Information is broadcast every 2 to 10 seconds as determined by a vessel’s speed and whether or not turning—more frequently for faster speeds and vessels changing course; every 3 minutes if anchored. Other data transmitted every 6 minutes include vessel name, radio call sign, type of ship and cargo, size, draft, destination, and time of arrival.
This high-technology system uses data links on VHF Channels 87B and 88B to exchange information. AIS transponders continuously transmit whether near shore or on the high seas. Using very precise timing, the system provides for automatic sharing of the channels used so that a vessel does not interfere with others; several thousand vessels could be in the same area without a problem. There are two classes of AIS installations: Class A includes all features; Class B has more limited capabilities, but sufficient to adequately participate in the system.
AIS coast stations may merely monitor ship transmissions, or may actively interrogate vessels to get destination, ETA, type of cargo, and other data. AIS can be integrated into Vessel Traffic Systems at entrances to ports. Shore stations can transmit warnings, port data, pilotage and berth assignment, and other information.
Vessels not required to participate in AIS can install less expensive ($200–$600) receive-only units that will greatly aid in identifying radar targets in waters used by commercial shipping. Knowing the name and MMSI of an approaching ship can ease the anxiety of a boater.
More information on AIS can be found at www.navcen.uscg.gov.
Boaters & the GMDSS
Small craft are not directly concerned with the mandatory equipment requirements of GMDSS, but boaters who will be operating in waters used by compulsorily equipped vessels may benefit generally with the several forms of communications services provided by GMDSS.
VHF/DSC radios automatically monitor Channel 70 for incoming DSC hailing calls and will alert the user of all distress, distress relay, “All Ships” hailing calls, and any hailing call addressed to the MMSI programmed in the radio. If a distress call is received, the calling vessel’s MMSI and lat/long (if included in the distress call message) will be displayed on the LCD, and the radio will switch to Channel 16. Regulations require that a continuous listening watch be maintained on Channel 16 regardless of the availability of the DSC monitoring function.
International Class D VHF/DSC radios maintain a continuous listening watch for hailing calls on Channel 70 except when the radio is transmitting. When underway, an audio listening watch must be maintained on Channel 16 except when the radio is being used to receive weather information or for communication on a working channel. When operating in the vicinity of commercial traffic, a radio equipped with a dualwatch facility should be set to monitor Channel 13, the bridge-to-bridge channel, in addition to Channel 16. If operating in a vessel traffic service area, maintain a watch on their working channel in place of, or in addition to, Channel 13.
OTHER RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
Other forms of “two-way” radio found on board recreational vessels include citizens band (CB) radio, amateur (“ham”) radio, Family Radio System (FRS), General Mobile Radio System (GMRS), cellular and satellite telephones, and other forms of satellite systems. However, none can be considered a substitute for true marine radio, since only the designated marine frequencies are monitored continuously for distress calls by the USCG and the search and rescue bodies of other countries.
Access to the Internet is desired by just about all cruising skippers. A variety of means is available: cell phone networks, HF/SSB radio channels, satellite links, and others.
Citizens Band Radio Service
As its name implies, the Citizens Band Radio Service is intended to give the general public economical access to two-way radio communications. CB sets are relatively inexpensive, easy to install, and simple to operate; see Figure 20-12. The CB service has its own particular functions, and these do not overlap or conflict with other established services. It is not a substitute for the safety features of the regular VHF marine radio service, nor for ship-to-shore connections into the public telephone service, nor is it a type of hobby or amateur service for casual contacts at great distances. While CB use is not now as widespread as it was three decades ago, it still is available and can meet particular communications needs of some boaters.
Figure 20-12 Citizens band (CB) radios can serve a useful purpose on recreational boats as they do not have the restriction of marine radios against personal and social conversations. Models for both fixed installation and handheld use are available at relatively inexpensive prices.
CB Channels & Equipment
CB is allocated 40 specific frequencies between 29.965 and 27.405 MHz, commonly referred to as channels 1 through 40. Any channel may be used with single or double sideband amplitude modulation (although older 23-channel sets are compatible with newer 40-channel sets only on channels 1 to 23). Except for Channel 9, reserved for “emergency communications involving the immediate safety of life or the immediate protection of property, or for traveler assistance,” no channel is assigned to a particular use or user group.
Sets are available as full-size units or handhelds. More expensive models have features such as dual watch, one-touch access for Channels 9 and 19, weather radio access and continuous monitoring, and others. All CB sets must be unmodified FCC-certified units. If not manufactured for marine use, a CB set must be well protected from the relatively harsh environmental conditions found on boats.
CB stations are limited to 4 watts carrier wave output power on DSB AM, and 12 watts PEP on SSB AM. The usual reliable range of CB is 5 miles, but may, in favorable conditions, extend to 15 or more. These are ranges for ground waves; sky waves can sometimes reach and be received thousands of miles away. For this reason, external power amplifiers are strictly prohibited by regulation—although some CB “outlaws” illegally boost the output power of their sets many times over. Such illegal power amplification crowds the airwaves and interferes with the intended purpose as a medium for local communications. FCC rules strictly prohibit CB communication between stations more than 155.3 miles (250 km) apart.
CB Operation
CB radio operation does not require a license, and there are no specific operating procedures. But the FCC does require:
• That all communications be restricted to the minimum practical transmission time.
• That exchanges between stations be limited to a maximum 5-minute duration.
• That when exchanges have reached the 5-minute limit, both stations remain off the air for a minimum of 1 minute.
• These rules do not apply in any case involving emergency communications.
CB communications may be in any language, but use of any code other than the “ten code” is prohibited. Station identification is encouraged, though not required; and its form is only “suggested.” Common practice is to use a CB “handle” or nickname, though the FCC encourages this only in conjunction with a call sign composed of the letter K followed by the operator’s initials and residence ZIP code or an organization name and unit number. “Handles” alone are preferred by many operators because they are untraceable.
A CB station may not be used for any illegal activity, to transmit music or sound effects, to advertise the sale or solicit the sale of goods and services, to intentionally interfere with another CB station, or any of several other actions set forth in the FCC Rules. Profane, obscene, or indecent language is specifically prohibited.
CB radios can be used wherever the FCC has jurisdiction on land and on vessels and aircraft (with permission of the captain); they may be used in international waters. They are not authorized for use on land or waters under the jurisdiction of a foreign nation (except Canada), but that country might have its own equivalent service.
If you want to install a CB set on your boat, be sure the unit chosen is designed or adapted for conditions at sea. You should use an antenna specifically intended for marine applications; the standard automotive-type will not function satisfactorily.
Family Radio Service
The Family Radio Service (FRS) is a direct outgrowth of the CB Service. It is the result of advances in technology and the availability of additional frequencies. It carries the same general types of communications, but at lesser ranges—no more than two miles, and often much less.
FRS units are small, not much larger than cell phones, and quite inexpensive; see Figure 20-13. They must be FCC-certified units, but no license is required; there are no age or citizenship restrictions. Power is limited to not more than 0.5 watt; the antenna must be nondetachable; no external amplifier may be attached to increase the range. Some units are waterresistant; some include a receiver for VHF continuous weather broadcasts. Although usually handheld, models are available that can be worn as a headset. Some models have an integrated GPS receiver and some are part of a marine VHF handheld.
Figure 20-13 Inexpensive handheld radios of the Family Radio Service (FRS) can be very useful in boating. Although their range is quite limited, they can be used for on-board communications, to a dinghy, or to a person on shore. Multiple channels with subgroup codes are available; no license is required. They can interconnect with radios of the higher-powered licensed General Mobile Radio Service (GMRS).
Using the FRS
The FRS operates on 14 channels in the 462 MHz portion of the spectrum; the least expensive models may operate on only one or several of these channels. There are 38 “quiet codes” (tones), one of which can be transmitted to activate a specific station with whom you wish to communicate—this lessens the annoyance of others using the same channel. You may use the FRS unit to transmit one-way communications only to establish communications with another person, send an emergency message, provide traveler assistance, make a voice page, or to conduct a brief test. There is no specific assigned use for any channel. You must share any channel with other users; no channel is available for the exclusive use for any person or group. Emergency communications take precedence over other traffic. FRS radios may not be connected to the public landline telephone service.
FRS radios have the same geographic authorizations and restrictions as CB stations as noted earlier. On larger boats some skippers use FRS radios to communicate with crew on the boat while anchoring. Others use it instead of VHF handhelds to maintain contact on shore or from dock to dinghy or primary vessel.
The Multi-Use Radio Service (MURS) is a generally similar unlicensed service with four channels near 150 MHz. There are marine VHF handhelds that can receive MURS channels.
General Mobile Radio Service
The General Mobile Radio Service (GMRS) is a personal radio service available to an individual person. It is a two-way voice communication service to facilitate the activities of that individual’s immediate family members. Before any station transmits on any channel authorized in the GMRS from any point within or over the territorial limits of any area where radio services are regulated by the FCC, the responsible party must obtain a license for a GMRS system. An individual 18 years of age or older, who is not a representative of a foreign government, is eligible to apply for a GMRS system license. Application for a GMRS system license is made on FCC Form 605. The fee for a GMRS license is $85, and the license is good for five years.
GMRS Systems
Each GMRS system consists of station operators, a mobile station (often comprised of several mobile units) and sometimes one or more land stations. A small base station is one that has an antenna no more than 20 feet above the ground or above the tree on which it is mounted.
Normally, you and your family members would communicate between yourselves over the general area of your residence, such as an urban or rural area. This area must be within the territorial limits of the fifty United States, the District of Columbia, and the Caribbean and Pacific Insular areas. In transient use, mobile station units from one GMRS system may communicate with mobile station units from other GMRS systems with certain restrictions.
There are twenty-three GMRS channels in the 462 and 467 MHz portions of the spectrum. The GMRS is a higher-powered, licensed extension of the Family Radio Service—seven of the GMRS channels match channels of the FRS, and intercommunication is allowed. In addition there are eight other GMRS channels for simplex use. None of the GMRS channels are assigned for the exclusive use of any individual or organization. Licensees must cooperate in the selection and use of the channels in order to make the most effective use of them and to reduce the possibility of interference. Other channels are for duplex systems and for relay stations.
Every GMRS system station operator must cooperate in sharing the assigned channel with station operators in other GMRS systems by monitoring the channel before initiating transmissions, waiting until communications in progress are completed before initiating transmissions, engaging in only permissible communications and limiting transmissions to the minimum practical transmission time.
GMRS stations may use up to 5 watts effective radiated power. Expect a communications range of 5 to 25 miles. You cannot make a telephone call with a GMRS unit.
Amateur Radio
Amateur (“ham”) radio is used worldwide, with capabilities for both short- and long-range communications. It is authorized for personal, but not business, communications; it is useful to boaters who cruise to faraway ports, and who want to communicate economically over very long distances.
Ham radio is assigned a multiplicity of frequency bands from 1.8 to 450 MHz, with additional specialized bands up to 250,000 MHz, in fact more frequencies than marine VHF/FM or SSB. One of the major workhorse ham frequencies is 14.300 MHz, where members of relay “nets” meet to handle permissible traffic and arrange landline telephone patches for mobile marine stations. Because of this network, ham radio can be useful to communicate across great distances with people who may or may not have access to marine radiotelephone equipment. A ham station at the National Hurricane Center, WX4NHC, operates the Hurricane Watch Net on 14.325 MHz, Waterway Net on 7.268 MHz.
Radiotelegraph (Morse code), radiotelephone (SSB or FM), radioteletype, data, and television signals are all transmitted by properly licensed ham operators on specified subbands. Indeed, some hams even “moon-bounce” signals.
Regulations & Licensing
The rules governing ham operations do not provide for a specific emergency channel, but several frequencies—such as 7.268 MHz and 14.325 MHz—have historically been used as emergency channels and are regularly monitored by hams worldwide.
Amateur radio operation requires both a station and an operator license. Ham operator’s licenses are issued in different grades—in ascending order, Technician, General, and Amateur Extra. (The former grades of Novice, Technician Plus, and Advanced have been “grandfathered” into the new system; new licenses of these grades are no longer being issued.) Each grade up grants the operator wider access to assigned bands and different modes. The holder of a General class license can operate on portions of all ham bands; an Amateur Extra license grants access to otherwise restricted sub-bands within the regular band limits.
A ham operator license is not overly easy to obtain, but neither is it impossible for anyone who seriously desires it and will devote time to study for the exam, which covers operating procedures and technical topics – study guides are available. The deletion of Morse code ability has opened up ham radio to a much wider field of boaters.
Equipment for amateur radio stations on boats is generally the same as on shore, requiring 12 volts DC, available from the craft’s normal power system. However, such gear is not manufactured for the marine environment and must be installed in a well-protected location. Marine transceivers can be used for ham communications if they can operate those frequencies, but ham sets cannot be used on marine channels as they are not “type accepted” for such use. Antennas face the same problems as covered in MF-HF radio section.
Additional information can be obtained from stores that sell ham radio equipment, by mail from the American Radio Relay League, Newington, CT 06111, or on the Internet at www.arrl.org.
Cellular Telephones
Cellular telephone systems use a large number of transceiving antennas/stations. Each one serves a limited geographic area, called a cell, and is linked together through relay and controlling stations into a network. That network is further connected to the landline telephone system. Although the range of both a cellular telephone and a cell antenna/station is relatively short, the ultimate calling range of the system is very great because of the ability to connect a cell call to the world-wide land-based telephone network.
Each cellular telephone (actually a radiotelephone) has its own identifier code. When a call is placed to a cellular phone, the network tries to contact it by broadcasting its code.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Cellular Phones for Boaters
The major advantages of the system are:
• Its user interface is much the same as with the standard telephone network, so operator licensing is not required.
• It affords mobile users full access to landbased telephone systems, and vice versa.
• It employs relatively short-range radio technology (that avoids overcongestion of the airwaves), while overall affording users the capabilities for long-range communications.
The maximum range of a cellular phone to and from a cell station varies but is basically line-of-sight. In some circumstances, coverage range can be only a few miles; in others, it can be a near equivalent of VHF radio. Range for boaters is further complicated by the fact that most cell stations are placed with landbased use in mind, so the distance offshore that a vessel can stay in contact with a cell station is often short. The limited range of a cell phone on a boat can be significantly increased if its small on-unit antenna is replaced by a fixed marine-type antenna mounted as high as practical on the craft. The range can be increased if its fraction-of-a-watt output is increased to two or three watts by an external amplifier or on-board repeater before being sent to the antenna.
A cellular phone can be useful and extremely convenient, but it is no substitute for proper marine radiotelephony when it comes to safety. The call for help will not be heard by other vessels that may be nearby, and Coast Guard and other assistance towing vessels do not have the capability of radio direction finding on cell phone transmissions. In some assistance cases, Coast Guard units have been known to ask if the vessel concerned has a cellular phone, with the objective of shifting communications to that mode with more positive contact and no interference from other stations. If phone service is available, check local telephone information service for Coast Guard phone numbers.
Cellular telephone service is continually improving because of expanding service areas and advancing technology. Mergers of major cellular phone service providers have resulted in improved networks.
Boaters should seek the latest available information from both equipment manufacturers and network service providers before making decisions regarding equipment selection or the purchase of cellular telephone service.
Satellite Telephones
Satellite telephone systems send and receive their voice and data messages using numerous satellites orbiting about 500 miles in space. The two major satphone systems are Iridium and Globalstar. Iridium, with its 66 low-earthorbiting (LEO) satellites, has worldwide coverage for handheld units and installed data terminals. Globalstar has less than worldwide coverage, but it does include all of North and South America and the Caribbean out to about 200 miles offshore.
The advantages of these systems are instantaneous voice and data connections on land and sea; large coverage areas (especially Iridium), and easy-to-use hardware. New or rebuilt handsets can be purchased for between $500 and $1,800. A wide variety of calling plans is available and offers per-minute pricing that can be less than $1.00 per minute. Data messages, including e-mail, can be exchanged, with compression techniques used to speed transmission.
Other Satellite Communications
Satellite communications systems (SATCOM) beam signals via earth-based and orbiting space relay stations. SATCOM affords users full access to voice, telex, facsimile, television and data networks. It is now practical for vessels down to 40 feet in length; see Figure 20-14.
Figure 20-14 Craft of roughly 20 feet length or more can be fitted for satellite service—voice, data, television, or a combination of these. Antennas within a “dome” are stabilized to keep them pointed in the correct direction regardless of motions of the vessel. Domes will vary in size depending upon the service used.
Ship-to-shore, ship-to-ship, and shore-toship communications are made via Coast Earth Stations (CES), the links into the network’s space segment for onshore subscribers. In the U.S., the CES are operated by Telenor Satellite Services (formerly COMSAT), which provides access to the worldwide satellite communications space segments supplied by the International Maritime Satellite Organization (Inmarsat).
Procedures for placing and receiving calls via Inmarsat are highly automated. CES Maritime Services operators give directory, calling and related assistance on a 24-hour, 7-day-perweek basis. The operators also provide distress assistance in concert with governmental rescue coordination centers.
The shipboard unit used for linking into the Inmarsat system is designated a Ship Earth Station (SES). There are a number of distinct types of SES, each providing a different array of access capabilities to the Inmarsat satellites and thereby to worldwide public telex and telephone networks.
There are many different Inmarsat services. Fleet Broadband, primarily used by large vessels, provides high speed data and voice with speeds up to 432kbps. Its shipboard terminal uses a large, stabilized, tracking dish antenna that is suitable only for large vessels.
Fleet 77, 55, and 33 provide a combination of global voice and fax communications, mobile ISDN data at 64 and 128kbps, and IP-based mobile packet data service for e-mail and web browsing.
Inmarsat C and Mini C provide low cost store-and-forward message and distress calling services and are a part of GMDSS.
Inmarsat D+ provides 2-way data communication for data transfer, remote monitoring, and tracking.
Inmarsat-M and Mini-M have a small digital voice terminal with a simplified tracking dish antenna. M has global coverage; Mini-M has coverage only in areas served by “spot beams” from the satellite antenna.
IsatPhone, a lightweight pocket-size dual mode satellite and GSM (cellular) phone has been introduced with service in most of Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Australia as of 2012.
VIOLATIONS & PENALTIES
You should never be in violation of the FCC Rules and you should have no need for the knowledge of the procedures and penalties involved. Yet things do not always work out that way, so it is just as well to be informed.
If you receive a CITATION OF VIOLATION from the FCC, you must reply in duplicate within ten days, to the office that issued the citation. If a complete reply cannot be given in that time, send an interim reply and supplement it as soon as possible. If for reasons beyond your control you cannot reply at all within ten days, do so at the earliest date practicable, and fully support your reasons for the delay. Each letter to the FCC must be complete and contain all the facts without cross-reference to other correspondence.
The answer must contain a full explanation of the incident and describe the actions taken to prevent a recurrence of it. If personnel errors are involved, your reply must state the name and license number of the operator concerned.
You may be lucky, however, and receive a WARNING NOTICE rather than a citation. Generally in this instance, no reply is required. The FCC form that you receive will indicate whether or not an answer is necessary. If one is required, don’t get yourself into further trouble by failing to answer within ten days.
Revocation & Suspension of License
A station license may be revoked for any one of a number of specified violations of the Communications Act or the FCC Rules. Operator licenses and permits normally are not revoked but are suspended for varying periods of time, up to the balance of the license term. Notice of suspension must be given in writing and is not effective until 15 days after receipt. Within this period, you can apply for a hearing, and this automatically defers the suspension until after the hearing has been held and the FCC has ruled.
Fines Imposed
In addition to the revocation or suspension of licenses, the FCC can prosecute violators in the Federal District Courts. Any violation of the Communications Act may be punished by a fine of not more than $10,000, or imprisonment for not more than one year, or both. A second offense, not necessarily a repeat of the first, increases the minimum limit on the prison term to two years. For a violation of any FCC rule, regulation, restriction, or condition, or of any treaty provision, a court may additionally impose a fine of not more than $500 for each and every day during which the violation occurred.
Administrative Forfeitures
To avoid the delays, costs, and cumbersome procedures of formal court prosecutions, the FCC has the authority to levy its own ADMINISTRATIVE FORFEITURES—actually small fines—for 12 specific violations. These are in addition to any other penalties that may be imposed by law.
Among these twelve, the violations of principal concern to the operators of radio stations on boats are:
• Transmission of any unauthorized communications on a distress or calling frequency.
• Failure to identify the station at the times and in the manner prescribed by the FCC rules.
• Interference with a distress call or distress communications.
• Operation of a station without a valid permit or license of the proper grade.
• Transmission of any false call contrary to the FCC rules.
• Failure to respond to official communications from the FCC.
The maximum forfeiture for a single violation, or a series of violations all falling within a single category as listed above, is $100. If more than one category is involved, however, the maximum liability is raised to $500 for a station licensee, or $400 for an individual operator. Note that the term “operator” may be applied to any person using the equipment, whether or not licensed by the FCC. In some cases, if two different persons are involved in an incident involving one station, forfeitures may be assessed against both station licensee and the person who was operating the station.
The procedures for the imposition of these administrative fines have been kept simple, yet ample protection is afforded to the rights of individuals. Upon receipt of a NOTICE OF APPARENT LIABILITY FOR FORFEITURE, the addressed person has three possible courses of action. He can pay the fine and so close the incident; or he may, within 30 days, submit a written statement to the FCC giving the reasons why he should be allowed to pay a lesser fine, or none at all; or he may request an interview with an FCC official. These last two courses of action can be combined, submitting both an explanation and a request for an interview. If either or both of these actions are taken, the FCC will review all information relating to the case, and make a final determination.
There is no judicial appeal from the FCC’s ruling, and it is best to pay up, as there are established procedures for turning over cases of nonpayment to a U.S. District Attorney’s office for prosecution.
OTHER MEANS OF COMMUNICATIONS
There is often a need for communications at very short distances—a few yards to perhaps a quarter or half mile from the boat, or on board the boat itself.
Hailers
For voice communications boat-to-boat or boat-to-shore over distances up to a hundred yards or so, a LOUD HAILER is very useful. This may be either an installed item of equipment or a portable POWER MEGAPHONE; an installed unit will have the most power and greatest range, but a handheld model will be more convenient on smaller motorboats and on sailboats and will allow sounds to be focused in a particular direction.
Various models of installed hailers offer additional useful features such as auxiliary use as a foghorn, perhaps sounding automatically at selected intervals. A valuable feature is a listening capability whereby the speaker can also act as a microphone to pick up distant sounds, aiding in two-way voice communications, or the early detection of sound-producing aids to navigation.
In selecting equipment, be sure to get a unit with adequate power, 25 to as much as 80 watts is desirable. The “P.A.” output from CB sets is only 2 to 4 watts; however, the “hailer” function on some VHF radios can be between 20 and 30 watts.
Proper installation is essential. A hailer requires adequate primary power wiring (a powerful hailer will draw 10 amps or more; check the voltage at the unit while using it). Adequate wiring from the unit to the speaker is also important. And perhaps most important is the proper location and mounting of the speaker (to disperse the sound in the desired direction and prevent feedback into the microphone). Note that despite what is seen on many craft, the proper mounting is with the longer axis of a rectangular speaker opening vertical, not horizontal; see Figure 3-27. An excellent feature of some installations is the mounting of the speaker either on the searchlight or on a similar mount that can be both trained in direction and elevated in a vertical plane. This permits the efficient use of the hailer to persons off to one side or a bridgetender high above the boat. The combination of a hailer that can pick up and amplify distant sounds with a trainable mount will permit “audio direction-finding” on fog signals to a surprising degree of precision—a real help in zero-visibility piloting situations.
Figure 20-15 An installed loud hailer is excellent for direct-voice communications over distances from tens of yards to a half mile or more. Some models will pick up incoming sounds to make two-way communications possible. When installed on a boat, the longer axis of the speaker’s horn, shown here horizontally, should be vertical.
Intercom Systems
While most people think of a boat as being too small and too compact to have internal communications problems, there are numerous applications for simple intercom systems. The interior of many larger cruisers, particularly those of the double-cabin type, are so divided that voices do not carry well from one compartment to another. A simple three-station intercom system connecting the bridge, after cabin, and forward cabin or galley can facilitate conversation between these locations and save many steps. On a boat with a small crew, such as a couple living on board by themselves, a quick and reliable communications system is truly a safety item, and the helmsman need not leave his position or divert his attention to carry on a conversation or summon assistance.
Many VHF radios can provide intercom functions with two or more remote stations and may allow full control of the radio from the remote unit. Some are available as wireless microphone/intercoms. Wireless telephone systems that can connect to cell phones can be used as intercoms. Wireless headsets with VOX (voice-operated transmit) are a popular option, especially when used by the foredeck crew while anchoring.
Morse Code Communications
Contrary to what many contemporary skippers believe, Morse code and other forms of signaling have not been totally replaced by electronic voice and data communications. Although radiotelephony and radiotext transmissions predominate, especially in the recreational sector, there remains a place for radio communications (other than in ham radio) that employ Morse code, and for visual forms of signaling, such as the use of hoisted flags.
The International Morse Code
The use of Morse code offers a number of significant advantages in radio communications. Because an interrupted continuous wave (CW) signal does not require microphone or modulation circuits, the equipment necessary for successfully sending Morse code messages is simple, lowcost, and easy to build and maintain. Moreover, exceptionally low output power—as little as 2 or 3 watts—is often sufficient to transmit CW signals across open ocean to a range in the thousands of miles. And because an experienced radio operator can usually distinguish even a weak Morse code CW signal amid static and interfering transmissions, these signals can often get through in circumstances where both VHF/FM and SSB would likely fail.
Memorizing Morse code characters, shown in Figure 20-16, takes time, but it can be done by anyone. Once learned, if occasionally used, they will not be forgotten.
Figure 20-16 Morse code signaling is not frequently used, but it can be of great help in some situations. It can be used by sound and flashing light. Learning is not difficult if studied and practiced occasionally.
Flag Signaling
There is an established international code of flag signals. One or more flags are hoisted aloft on a halyard where they can be seen by another vessel. The set of code flags—shown in the International Flags and Pennants insert—consists of one each of 26 alphabet flags, 10 numeral pennants, 3 substitutes (or repeaters), and an answering pennant (the Navy and Coast Guard use a fourth repeater). The substitutes are used when a given flag or pennant has already been used once in a hoist; flags and pennants are mixed in a hoist as required.
NGA Publication No 102, International Code of Signals provides sets of one- and two character signals for commonly used messages, plus signals of more characters for more complex communications (a revised edition in digital format is available in its entirety online). These are used with flag hoists and other methods of visual and sound signaling. For example, hoisting the alphabet flag ‘H’ means “I have a pilot on board.” The alphabet flags ‘N’ plus ‘C’ means, “I am in distress and require immediate assistance.”
Today, few yachts carry a full set of international code flags, but many carry one or more that have special uses; for instance, the yellow ‘Q’ flag that must be hoisted when entering, and requesting permission to use, a foreign port. Racing sailboats (and judging committee boats), however, regularly have recourse to flag signaling, and the sailing skipper who engages in racing needs to be fully familiar with the specialized signals involved; refer to “International Flags & Pennants” and to “Signaling Using Flags.”
Flashing Light Signaling
Signaling by short and long flashes of light is much faster than flag signaling, and more information can be communicated. Moreover, because light signals can be narrowly aimed, they are less likely to be intercepted by other than the communicating vessels. Consequently, light signals are still used by naval vessels in some situations.
On board ships, light signaling is often accomplished by means of an Aldis light, a very bright, highly aimable light with a convenient trigger switch. However, light signaling can be accomplished with any form of light that is readily turned on and off, even a flashlight. If it is not feasible to turn the light off and on fast enough for signaling, a shutter can be operated close in front of the light to form short and long flashes. Therefore, there are circumstances in which light signaling can be advantageous to a small craft skipper.
Unfortunately, light signaling requires the ability to send and read Morse code—a rarity among recreational boaters. So it is unlikely to have application for most boat operators—unless perhaps one night he or she is aground, with a general failure of electrical power for radio communication and an urgent need to communicate with a Coast Guard rescue vessel or helicopter, in which case the ability to send light signals with a battery-powered flashlight could prove critical.