Figure 7-01 A typical twin outboard– powered boat. The large outboard motors on this boat are bolted in place. Small outboards may be clamped in place. Other boats may be powered with single or twin outboards or single or twin sterndrives.
The Boat • The Motor & Its Accessories • Equipment • Outboard Motor Basics • The Trailer • Trailer Operations • Launching & Retrieving • Small Boat Handling • Inflatable Boats • Jet-Drive Boats • Waterskiing
The pleasures of recreational boating are not in any way related to the size of one’s craft, although it is true that size has a real bearing on the type of boating activities that can be accomplished. Whereas there are elements of seamanship that apply to every boat, there are significant differences between the requirements for small, open outboard or sterndrive craft and larger inboard-powered cruisers and sport-fishing boats.
This chapter focuses on smaller craft, up to 26 feet (7.9 m) long—boats that are generally suited for trailering. These are the U.S. Coast Guard categories of Classes A and 1—about 96 percent of all the boats in the United States.
THE BOAT
Outboard boats, those craft suitable for a detachable motor, come in a wide range of sizes, designs, construction materials, and costs. At the lower end are the 8-foot (2.4-m) or smaller prams that can be car-topped or used as a dinghy. At the upper end of the scale are the center-console and cruiser hulls that can take two, three, or even four motors of as much as 300 or more horsepower (hp). And there are many sizes and styles between these extremes.
Also at the upper end of this size range are boats with sterndrives that combine the desirable qualities of an inboard engine with the flexibility of a drive unit generally similar to the lower unit of an outboard motor.
The Use of the Boat
The key to selecting the “right” boat for a particular skipper is the use, or uses, for which the craft is intended. Obviously, the boat for waterskiing is not the boat for trolling, and the boat for an afternoon outing may not be the perfect one for a week’s cruise. Not all boating families will agree on just one or even two uses, and few families can afford a separate craft for each activity desired.
Compromise is inevitable, but if all possible factors are considered in advance, the likelihood of disappointment is reduced. Be sure to take into consideration the type of waters on which the boat will be used—protected lakes and rivers, coastal bays, or offshore.
Hull Designs
There are two basic hull types—displacement and planing—and many variations of the latter. Although, in general, displacement boats cruise through the water and planing hulls lift and skim over the surface, often it is difficult to make a sharp distinction between these types.
Planing hulls receive a large part of their support at planing speeds from the dynamic reaction of water against the bottom, and a lesser part of their support from buoyancy, which diminishes with increased speed but never quite disappears at any speed. With today’s availability of motors with high-horsepower, most cruisers have some planing action, and practically all runabouts are of the planing type.
Small boats designed to take outboard or sterndrive power can be classified into the following hull forms:
• Flat bottom (displacement type) Usually rowboats or skiffs 10 to 18 feet (3 to 5.5 m); used for fishing, hunting, or utility purposes on shallow streams and small protected lakes. These include the ubiquitous jon boats, roomy and stable, often made of aluminum. Though any flat-bottom boat will plane with enough engine power, it will give you a bone-jarring, even dangerous ride on anything but flat water. These boats are intended to operate in displacement mode with oars or small outboard motors. Stable and roomy enough to stand in while fishing or duck hunting, and able to float in mere inches of water, they are valued for their utility in sheltered water.
• Round bottom (displacement type) Dinghies, tenders, car-top boats, occasionally runabouts 12 to 18 feet (3.7 to 5.5 m). At slow speeds these hulls are often more easily driven and maneuvered than the flat-bottom craft. (Some light round-bottom boats will also plane.)
• V bottom The most popular type of hull design, the V bottom is used for runabouts, utility craft, and cruisers when planing speeds are desired. All V-bottom hulls incorporate flat underwater surfaces that develop dynamic lift for planing as the boat speeds up. In contrast with flat-bottom boats, however, the flat surfaces of a V-bottom boat are given deadrise (see Chapter 1), which means that they slope upward from keel to waterline when viewed in cross section and thus can cut through waves rather than pounding over them. There are many V-bottom varieties, including:
Shallow–V hulls have little deadrise—sometimes almost none. Popular on the U.S. West Coast, this type has virtues, but rough-water comfort isn’t one of them. The trihull (or cathedral) is a V bottom with two smaller V shapes on each side of the hull. The deep V uses a degree of deadrise at the transom running from 22° to 24° (see Chapter 1). The modified V has a deep V forward that tapers off to a shallow V in the stern, and has a hard or soft chine. This is the most popular competition-ski-boat construction type. Twin-hull catamarans are increasing in popularity because of the stable platform that they offer.
• Hydroplanes Generally used for racing. The bottom, which is flat, may be “stepped”—that is, divided into two or more levels about halfway between bow and stern. The resultant notch reduces wetted surface, increasing speed.
Size & Loading
Because overloading a small boat can be exceedingly dangerous, the safe limits for a particular boat must be known. Coast Guard rules require that U.S. boats under 20 feet (6.1 m) (except sailboats and some special types) manufactured after October 31, 1972, carry a “capacity plate” showing maximum allowable loads. Since August 1980, plates for outboard boats have shown a maximum horsepower for motor(s), maximum number of persons, and maximum weights for persons only and for motor, gear, and persons together; see Figure 7-02. Plates for inboard, sterndrive, and nonpowered vessels omit the maximum power rating.
Figure 7-02 For an outboard craft, a U.S. Coast Guard capacity plate shows the maximum horsepower as well as passenger number and weight limits and total maximum weight for persons, motor, and gear.
Added Buoyancy
Boats less than 20 feet (6.1 m) in length manufactured since July 31, 1973, carry built-in flotation installed in accordance with U.S. Coast Guard regulations (the exceptions, again, being sailboats and some special types). It is possible to add positive flotation to older boats to ensure the safety of yourself and your passengers. This can be in the form of sealed air chambers or masses of plastic foam.
The buoyancy units should be located as high as possible in the hull so that the boat, if swamped, will remain in an upright position and not capsize. This provides greater safety than a capsized hull; persons in the water will be able to hold on easily, and they may be able to recover some form of emergency signaling, bailing, or other needed equipment.
Special Design Features
A highly desirable safety feature is a self-bailing MOTOR WELL. Most boats powered with an out-board motor have a transom that is “cut down,” or lowered, where the motor is to be attached. This is necessary so that the motor will be low enough that its propeller will be well below the bottom of the hull. Though it improves the efficiency of the motor, a cut-down transom creates a vulnerable low point through which following seas could swamp the boat from astern. Safety can be maintained by placing an inner bulkhead forward of the motor that is not cut down, one that is fully as high as the sides of the boat; see Figure 7-03. The space aft of this bulkhead to the cut-down transom is the motor well; it should have self-bailing drains at each after corner.
Many boats will have special features for particular applications, such as sport fishing. These invariably add to the cost of the boat and are justified only if the craft is to be used for such special purpose.
Figure 7-03 On the craft shown here, the motor is mounted on a cut-down portion of the transom, but there is a full-height bulkhead forward of the motor. This design allows the motor to be at an optimum height with respect to the hull without increasing the danger of water entering the boat from astern.
THE MOTOR & ITS ACCESSORIES
Trailerable boats are typically powered by outboard motors or inboard-outboard power pack- ages (I/O, also called sterndrives). For information on maintaining an engine, see Chapter 21. This chapter focuses on how to choose an outboard or sterndrive engine and propeller and how to operate the engine safely.
Outboard Motors
An outboard motor is a detachable powerplant, complete with driveshaft and propeller, that operates on one to eight cylinders; see Figure 7-04. The fuel tank and operating controls are usually separate; on the smallest motors, they may be mounted on the powerhead itself. Although usually a gasoline-fueled motor (two-stroke or four-stroke operation), it may be electric for trolling or other low-power applications. The only two-stroke outboards being built today utilize electronically controlled high-pressure direct injection (HPDI) to satisfy emission regulations. However, there are hundreds of thousands of older conventional two-stroke engines still giving satisfactory service around the country and the world.
Figure 7-04 A two-stroke outboard motor provides a higher horsepower-to-weight ratio than an inboard engine or a four-stroke outboard. The use of computer-controlled fuel delivery systems and automatic oil injection enables new two-stroke outboards to comply with all emission standards.
The outboard is clamped or bolted to a cutout in the transom or mounted on a bracket bolted to the transom. Smaller motors are clamped on for easy removal; medium and larger motors are bolted on, and removal is possible but infrequent. The motor can be tilted into or out of the water, either by hand for smaller units or, on larger units, with the help of hydraulics. The smallest outboards are generally steered by a hand-held tiller. The medium range has wheelcontrolled steering with push-pull cables; larger units will be assisted hydraulically (some with power steering).
Sterndrives
At and above about the 100 hp mark, a sterndrive power package is often used. This combines a four-stroke gasoline or diesel engine mounted inside the hull with an externally mounted drive unit that resembles the lower section of an outboard motor; see Figure 7-05. This is intended to combine the greater power and efficiency of an inboard engine with the directed-thrust steering, tilt-up capability, and other advantages of outboard propulsion.
Sterndrive boats are similar in size and design to medium and larger outboard boats, handle similarly, are used for the same general purposes, and can be trailered.
Figure 7-05 A sterndrive propulsion package, also called an inboard/outboard, combines a typical medium-size inboard gasoline or diesel engine with an external drive unit (also called an outdrive) that is very similar to the lower unit of an outboard motor.
Outboard vs. Sterndrive
Two-stroke outboards offer trailerboaters a great advantage by providing a much higher horsepower-to-weight ratio than four-stroke sterndrives. Two-stroke outboard motors are built of lightweight cast aluminum and pull more horsepower out of smaller-displacement blocks. For example, a 115-hp sterndrive cast-iron engine that has 181 cu. in. (3.0 L) of displacement might weigh 625 pounds (283 kg), while a 115-hp twostroke outboard with 105 cu. in. (1.7 L) displacement, built by the same manufacturer, weighs in at 315 pounds (143 kg), about half the weight for the same power. (Motors of all types are now also rated in metric units; 1 hp = 0.746 kW.) Fourstroke outboard engines are usually somewhat heavier than two-strokes and may be available at somewhat higher maximum power ratings.
Outboard motor wells use up valuable cockpit space. However, if the boat is designed for it, an outboard “bracket” can be attached to the boat’s full transom, placing the motor or motors outside the boat. Putting the motor a couple of feet aft of the transom places the propeller in “cleaner” water, allowing it a better “grip.” Brackets are generally used with large outboard motors and boats in the 20- to 30-foot (6.1 to 9.1 m) range. Brackets can prove particularly useful for twin-motor installations and are most popular in 24- to 28-foot (7.3 to 8.5 m) offshore-style fishing boats, where increased cockpit space is appreciated but twin engines are desired.
Four-stroke outboards continue to advance, getting smaller in size and lighter while producing more horsepower. Seven Marine has developed a V-8 557-horsepower outboard with a closed-loop cooling system (the first) that is only 100 pounds heavier than a typical 350-horsepower four-stroke.
Electronic “fly-by-wire” outboard-engine controls replace the traditional mechanical controls with digital data, allowing a single wiring harness to serve multiple engines or additional helm stations. Digital controls provide smooth and positive shifting and precise throttle response even at low speeds; they eliminate the often-heard “clunk” of an outboard engine gear engaging. They also need less maintenance than the old cables, which can corrode, and the helmsman can adjust the throttle friction levels to his or her preference.
Sterndrive engines offer the greater fuel efficiency of four-stroke engines and the convenience of inboard-engine accessibility, but they do use up interior space. Sterndrives are suitable when a boater wants the convenience of an outboard (a drive leg that tilts out for servicing, prop maintenance, or shallow-water operation and helps the boat reach optimum trim) and the appearance of an inboard, with the engine hidden inside the boat. Some sterndrive manufacturers offer a drive with two counter-rotating props on a single shaft. This reduces torque, keeping the steering straight, and adds to overall engine performance and efficiency. It also eliminates propwalk and enables the helmsman to back in a straight line.
MerCruiser and Volvo Penta offer twin-engine gasoline sterndrives in which the two drives are independently articulating, and each drive has twin counterrotating propellers. The drives are controlled with a joystick for fingertip docking and low-speed operation. The turning of the drive legs enables the boat to move from side to side or in any direction and describe a complete circle within its own length. The system uses digital throttle and shift controls and electronic/hydraulic steering for ease of operation.
Although most sterndrives are in the 100- to 450-horsepower range, Mercury Racing has introduced the most powerful sterndrive yet, a 1,350-hp all-aluminum, turbocharged V-8 engine with 32 valves and 525 cubic inches of displacement.
ENGINE CYCLES
Internal-combustion engines—gasoline or diesel, land or marine, inboard or outboard—operate on CYCLES consisting of several STROKES. A stroke is one travel of the piston in the cylinder, up or down. (Customary usage is to call inboard powerplants on boats “engines” and outboard powerplants “motors,” but there is no real difference in the two terms.)
The majority of engines operate on a cycle of four strokes and are usually referred to as FOUR -STROKE ENGINES, although the term “four-cycle” is occasionally used. The cycle is normally considered to start with the INTAKE STROKE—this is a downward movement of the piston resulting in a partial vacuum in the COMBUSTION CHAMBER and an inflow of air or a mixture of air and fuel through one or more INTAKE VALVES. Next is the COMPRESSION STROKE—an upward movement of the piston, reducing the volume of the combustion chamber and increasing the pressure and temperature of the air or mixture, called the CHARGE. In a gasoline-fueled engine, when a piston reaches the top of the cylinder, a precisely timed electrical spark results in the rapid burning (not explosion) of the fuel-plus-air mixture. In a diesel engine, the COMPRESSION RATIO (the ratio of the volume in the cylinder when the piston is all the way down to the volume when it is all the way up) is greater than in a gasoline engine. Only air is compressed; fuel is injected at or near the top of the piston’s travel. There is no spark, the initiation of burning being caused by the very high temperature of the highly compressed air. Once the fuel is ignited by spark or compression, the rapid burning of the air and fuel generates a large amount of COMBUSTION GASES (sometimes called “products of combustion”), the expansion of which forces the piston down in the POWER STROKE. After completing this stroke, the piston again moves upward in the EXHAUST STROKE, forcing out the expanded gases through the EXHAUST VALVE, which has been opened for this purpose; the cycle is then complete. (In some engines, there may be more than one of each type of valve. In FUEL-INJECTION gasoline engines, fuel may be injected into the cylinder as in a diesel engine, but a spark is still needed to ignite the charge as the compression ratio is less.)
Power is generated by the engine on only one of the four strokes and on only one of each two revolutions of the CRANKSHAFT. For each cylinder, the other three strokes are carried through by power strokes in other cylinders and/or the momentum of a FLYWHEEL
Another type of engine has only two strokes in each cycle; this type of operation is termed TWO-STROKE CYCLE, commonly called TWO-STROKE (or sometimes “twocycle” as in the designation of outboard motor oil as TC-3W, where “TC” stands for two-cycle and “W” for water-cooled). The inflow of air and fuel and the outflow of exhaust gases are through openings in the cylinder walls; there are no valves as in four-stroke engines. These PORTS are closed off by the sides of the piston for most of each stroke, opening at different times in the upward and downward movement of the piston. Near the bottom of the downward stroke, the exhaust port is uncovered and the remaining pressure in the combustion chamber forces out the burnt gases. The intake port opens slightly before the exhaust port (on the opposite side of the cylinder wall) is covered; the incoming charge, under slight pressure, helps in pushing the burned gases out, but in so doing, some of the unburned fuel of the new charge goes out also, increasing the pollution. Each downward power stroke of the piston serves to slightly increase the pressure in the CRANKCASE so that, when an intake port is uncovered shortly after the exhaust port is uncovered, a fresh charge of fuel and air will flow into the combustion chamber to be compressed on the subsequent upward stroke. When the piston nears the top of its travel, a spark ignites the charge and the cycle repeats.
The advantages of a two-stroke outboard engine are the simplicity and weight savings conferred by the absence of valves and a less-complicated lubrication system. A two-stroke engine is also more powerful because it generates one power stroke for every engine revolution instead of every two revolutions as in a four-stroke engine. The historic disadvantages of a two-stroke motor—the need to manually mix oil with the fuel (now required only in very small, “portable” motors) and the “dirty” smoky exhaust caused by incomplete combustion of fuel—have been greatly diminished by the design changes made to comply with emission regulations. In addition, today’s two-stroke motors are as quiet and free of vibration as most four-stroke motors.
Outboard Motor Selection
While horsepower always seems to be the first consideration of motor selection, other factors, such as weight, starting method, and price, may be even more important. With the wide range of motors available, it is not difficult to select a model suitable for almost any application.
The horsepower required for a boat will depend upon the size, weight, and hull design of the boat and the desired speed. A displacement hull of 14 feet (4.3 m) or so will serve adequately for lake and river fishing with a 10-horsepower motor; any greater horsepower would be wasted in an attempt to drive the boat faster than it is designed to go.
For waterskiing behind a planing hull of 16 to 18 feet (4.9 to 5.5 m), motors of 40 to 75 horsepower are suitable. A larger outboard will make the boat go faster, provided the hull can handle the larger engine, but speed does not increase in direct proportion to motor power. Very roughly, horsepower must be tripled or even quadrupled to double boat speed.
Two-Stroke or Four-Stroke?
From their commercial introduction in 1909, outboard motors were almost universally two-stroke cycle designs. The two-stroke cycle provided a number of advantages: lower manufacturing cost, lighter weight (there are no complex intake and exhaust valve systems), and more power per cubic inch of cylinder displacement. The disadvantages of the basic two-stroke cycle include the need to mix lubricating oil with the fuel, difficulties in starting and sustained lowspeed running, and the presence of unburned fuel and oil in the exhaust. While the introduction of automatic oil injection systems, electronic ignitions, and electric starters made twostroke motors easier to use, they could not equal four-stroke motors in smoothness of lowspeed operation, and they continued to have “dirty” exhaust. A limited range of four-stroke outboards was introduced in the U.S. in 1973. Although heavier and more expensive than two-stroke motors, they did not require the addition of oil to the gasoline, were easy to start, idled smoothly, ran quietly, and were much more fuel-efficient. Available in a relatively modest horsepower range, they slowly gained market share but remained a small part of the outboard motor market.
The enactment of federal limits on exhaust emissions meant that all outboards would have to comply with progressively stricter emission standards. Engine manufacturers reacted positively by developing new two-stroke motors that would comply with the new limits and simultaneously developing lighter and more powerful four-stroke motors. Today, two-stroke outboard motors are available with power ratings from 2 to 300 horsepower, though most are less than 250 horsepower. Four-stroke outboards are available with power ratings as high as 627 horsepower, though most are less than 350 horsepower. Some of the motors use carburetors; others, low- or high-pressure direct-to-cylinder fuel injection. Some motors are equipped with mechanically driven superchargers, others use pulse-tuned induction and exhaust systems to achieve high power output per cubic inch of displacement.
There are disadvantages to fuel-injection systems. They are usually more costly than a carburetor and require more complex engine control systems. Maintenance, when required, must be performed by technicians equipped with and trained to use specialized test equipment.
Four-stroke outboard motors have many design features in common with automobile engines. There are intake and exhaust valves for each cylinder, and fuel is injected. Oil (designated as outboard motor oil FC-W) is not mixed into the fuel flow but is stored separately and applied by a pump for lubricating the crankshaft, connecting rods, cylinder walls, and other parts of the engine. Two-stroke motors continue to provide a weight advantage when compared with four-stroke models of the same horsepower. In the “PORTABLE” motor category, up to about 25 horsepower, the two-stroke motor can be as much as 50 pounds lighter than a four-stroke motor of equal power. Twostroke motors in the 300 horsepower range can be 35% lighter than comparable four-stroke motors, a weight difference of more than 270 pounds. Again, the only two-stroke motors being manufactured today utilize electronically controlled highpressure direct-injection (HPDI) technology.
Small Gasoline and Electric Motors
Very small single-cylinder gasoline outboards, ranging from 2-hp models that weigh under 25 pounds (11.3 kg) to 4- and 5-hp motors of 45 pounds (20.4 kg) or less, offer inexpensive, reliable power for dinghies, small inflatables, and small sailboats. Most of these outboards are simple, with integral gas tanks, 360° steering (allowing you to reverse by spinning the entire engine), and no transmission.
Even smaller 12-volt electric motors, in various sizes rated in pounds of thrust, are bow-mounted on small fishing boats as auxiliary motors to pull them along at trolling speeds. These motors are quiet and usually rigged for remote control, with the operator controlling the motor with his feet while using his hands to do his fishing; see Figure 7-06.
Several electric outboard motors are available for the main propulsion power of smaller, slower boats. These are of limited horsepower and are used in specialized applications, such as where no engine emissions are permitted. The motors are quite light but require several hundred pounds of batteries. (There are also small craft with inboard electric motor/battery propulsion.)
Figure 7-06 For fishing in protected waters, a boat will often have a high-horsepower motor for a speedy run to the fishing area, plus a bow-mounted electric motor for quietly moving around to the various spots where the fish might be.
Electric Starting
Most small outboard motors are started by pulling a rope that is wound around the top of the flywheel. This is not practical for larger motors, so electric starting systems are provided. The electrical system, with its battery and alternator, has the added bonus of making possible the use of navigation lights and electronic gear on the boat.
Electric starting means added weight and cost, but this is offset by the greater convenience. In general, motors less than about 9 hp will be manually started; those of more than 25 hp will have electric starting; motors between these sizes may have either method, though starting a 25-hp motor with a pull cord is a challenge.
Single-, Twin-, or Multiple-Motor Installation
Many outboard hulls are designed to allow the fitting of two or even more motors on the transom. There are definite advantages and disadvantages to each arrangement, given the same total horsepower.
Figure 7-07 Twin outboard motors give a greater degree of security from loss of power. The disadvantage is higher initial investment compared with the cost of a single motor of the same total horsepower, plus more weight and greater fuel consumption.
The most common reason for twin motors rather than a single one is the added safety that such an installation provides; see Figure 7-07. Properly maintained outboard motors are extremely reliable, but if one should fail, the other will bring the boat home. Disadvantages of the twin rig include the greater initial cost, an additional battery (or larger single one), more complex control systems, greater weight in the boat (about 60 to 75 percent more), greater underwater drag, and greater fuel consumption (not doubled, but greater by about 50 percent). Twin motors, and their batteries and fuel tanks, take up more space than that needed for a singlemotor installation. The standard practice in any twin-engine installation is to mount a right-handed prop on the starboard engine and a lefthanded prop (see below) on the port engine in order to balance out strong torque effects; see Figure 7-08.
Figure 7-08 This multi-purpose open-deck, 25-foot catamaran-type boat has twin high-horsepower outboard motors. The greater beam of this type of hull provides greater stability for fishing and cruising and a wider spacing for the motors, increasing maneuverability.
A special case is the large outboard cruiser that needs two motors to meet horsepower requirements and has no stringent weight or space requirements. In such an installation, twin motors will also allow the use of more efficient propellers with larger blade area.
If a boat is performing to certain standards with a single motor, what will result if a second motor of the same power is added (assuming the boat is rated to handle the double horsepower)? The added weight and drag, combined with hydrodynamic factors, will hold the speed increase to about 25 percent, although this will vary widely with specific installations. Fuel consumption with both engines running at the same rpm (revolutions per minute) will be about 11/2 times that of the single-motor installation.
A combination to be considered is a single large motor adequate for all normal operation, plus a smaller motor of 4 to 10 hp. The smaller motor is used for trolling while fishing—large motors should not be run at slow speeds for extended periods—and for emergency backup; see Figure 7-09. A 6-hp motor will move a medium-size outboard hull at 3 to 4 knots and get it home or to assistance.
Figure 7-09 Because large motors are not optimally efficient when run at slow speeds for long periods of time, some skippers choose to mount a second, small motor that will push the boat at a trolling speed. Such a motor can also bring the craft home should the large motor fail.
Propellers
Although most outboard motors are sold with a “stock” propeller suitable for an average boat under average conditions, some motors, especially larger ones, are offered with a choice of several propellers. Keep in mind that a stock propeller may not have the optimum diameter or pitch, or both, for a particular application. Your first step should be to become familiar with the basic parts of a propeller; see Figure 7-10.
Manufacturers publish tables of recommended propeller sizes for various applications, but these should be used only as initial guides. If you know another owner who has an identical boat and motor combination, whose style of boating matches yours, and who is getting the desired performance from his craft, your decision may be easy.
Figure 7-10 An understanding of propellers should start with knowledge of the basic parts. The propeller shown here is typical, but there are some design differences in other models.
Otherwise, the answer lies in experimentation. In any case, the “right” propeller for any boat in a specific application is the one that allows the motor to turn up to its full rated rpm, but no more. It is necessary for the motor to turn to full rated rpm in order to develop its full rated power. However, if it will turn faster than that, the propeller is too small and full power is not being developed at the rated maximum rpm (which must never be exceeded).
Ideally, a propeller should be matched not just to the motor but to the boat and the use to which it will be put. In reality, the propeller that comes with a boat is often a compromise. If this is true of your boat—if your engine is not turning up to its rated speed, for example—you can improve your boat's performance by fitting a more appropriate prop.
As a spare propeller is an excellent safety item, the purchase of a more efficient one is not all “added expense”—the stock propeller becomes the spare.
PROPELLER TYPES
Propellers are classified according to their construction, materials, and design. Six types are generally available, four of which are shown below.
• The aluminum propeller can be run fully submerged or slightly surfaced with light loads. Some have special blades to avoid becoming fouled with weeds in shallow-water operation.
• High reverse thrust is useful for workboats, large slower boats, and auxiliary sailpower applications. The blades provide the same thrust in forward or reverse.
• The cleaver-style surfacing propeller has the trailing edge of its blades cut on a straight line. This is a true high-rev racing performer designed for surface-piercing sterndrives and outboard applications. It provides less bow lift than the chopper.
• The chopper style, another surfacing propeller, is for sport boaters for speeds higher than 50 mph. It has considerable bowlifting capabilities and is known for the tenacious way in which it refuses to break loose on a plane, a much-desired characteristic. It comes with weed-chopping fingers.
• A basic stainless-steel propeller is similar in design to the conventional propeller of aluminum, but it has slightly thinner blades and higher strength and durability for a wide variety of medium- to high-horsepower applications. It is also resistant to corrosion in salt water.
• Stainless-steel high-performance or racing propellers are of the cleaver type with a higher pitch range because of the combination of high horsepower and lightweight boats. Speeds are in the 90 mph range.
Diameter & Pitch
Diameter is defined as the distance across the circle made by the blade tips as the propeller rotates; see Figure 7-11. The proper size is determined by the rpm at which the propeller will be turning, as well as the amount of power delivered through it. Note that diameter will need to be greater as horsepower increases and as rpm decreases. Diameter will tend also to be larger as propeller blade surface increases.
Figure 7-11 Diameter is the distance across the circle that the blade tips trace as they revolve; note that for a three-bladed propeller it is not a tip-to-tip measurement. Pitch is the distance that a propeller would advance in one revolution in a solid substance, as a screw would advance in wood. Shown here are two propellers of different diameter and pitch.
The pitch of a propeller determines its “bite” on the water, and thus the rpm that the motor can turn up (this is also affected by propeller diameter). Motor rpm is related to boat speed and weight—a faster boat will use a propeller of greater pitch than a vessel that is designed for slower operation. Experimentation is really the only way of selecting the best match of propeller to suit the craft. Propellers are available whose pitch can be adjusted over a moderate range.
A propeller is described by stating its diameter and pitch, usually in inches—for instance, the lower propeller in Figure 7-11 with a 16-inch diameter and a pitch of 13 inches would be described as “16 by 13,” typically written as “16 x 13”; it would also be designated as “right-hand” or “left-hand”.
If a single motor is “doubled up” with another similar to it, this will require a change of propeller on the original motor. The faster speed obtained with the additional horsepower will call for a greater pitch—probably one but possibly two inches more, but only trials will tell for sure.
Materials
Most stock propellers on outboards and sterndrives are made of aluminum. These are well suited for a conventional purpose and are also relatively easy to repair. Propellers of stainless steel and other high-strength alloys are advantageous for special applications such as waterskiing and racing. They are more durable, but also more expensive to purchase and repair. Plastic is used mainly for propellers of small motors such as those for electric trolling and on dinghies.
Shear Pins & Slip Clutches
Because outboard boats often operate in fairly shallow water, the drive shaft, gears, and other internal parts of the motor are subject to damage should the propeller hit an underwater object. To prevent such damage, the motors are equipped with either a shear pin (older small motors only) or a slip clutch (all current models) on the propeller shaft.
A shear pin is made of a relatively soft metal. It transmits the drive from the propeller shaft to the propeller, and is just strong enough for this. Upon impact with a rock or other hard object by a propeller blade, this pin is broken, sheared off near the end, and the impact is not transferred to the inner parts of the motor; be sure to carry spare pins.
To overcome the nuisance of having to replace sheared pins, manufacturers developed slip clutches in which a rubber inner hub is used to transmit the drive power. Under normal loads there is no slippage, but upon impact with a hard object, the rubber hub slips somewhat to absorb the strain from the propeller blade.
Some propellers are constructed with removable blades so that one or two damaged blades can be replaced; carrying extra blades rather than an extra propeller can save space, weight, and money.
EQUIPMENT
From the moment it is launched, each boat—even the smallest, including personal watercraft (PWCs)—must meet all federal requirements for a craft of its size and type of use (refer to Chapter 3), plus any additional equipment required by state or local regulations. Boaters venturing into new waters subject to other regulations than at home should check with a marina operator, park ranger, or other local authority to avoid inadvertent violations. The prudent traveler will find out about any further local requirements, such as anchoring limitations, special cruising permits, speed limitations, etc.
Navigation Lights
Even if you intend never to use your boat at night, it should be equipped with navigation lights (refer to Chapter 4). Engine trouble, fuel problems, unexpectedly good fishing, or other situations may keep you out longer than planned. (PWCs are not operated at night and thus are not expected to have navigation lights.)
Power-driven vessels less than 12 m (39.4 feet) in length have the option under both the Inland and International Navigation Rules of carrying a single all-round white light, visible two miles, in lieu of separate forward and stern lights. This light may be placed off the fore-and-aft centerline if centerline mounting is not practicable. Under the International Rules only, if such a light is shown, the sidelights must be combined in one light that is carried on the fore-and-aft centerline or located as nearly as practicable on the same fore-and-aft line as the all-round light.
Nearly all outboard boats are therefore delivered with a red-green combination light at the bow and an all-round white light aft. All too often, however, the after light is not high enough to meet the requirement for all-round visibility, especially when the boat is underway and the bow rises, or when a canvas top is used. Some lights are on a telescoping pole so that they may be lowered for convenience when not in use during the daytime, and to protect the mounting from damage; see Figure 7-12. Even when raised, these lights are usually too low to be seen from ahead. Be sure that your boat can be seen from all directions when underway at night; the white light is more important than the colored lights, as it will be seen at a greater distance. Have someone on shore or on another boat check as you run past at various angles, and then let your boat go dead in the water to check the after light as an anchor light.
Figure 7-12 A stern light may be mounted on a telescoping pole so that it can be kept low and out of the way during the day. When operating at night, be sure to extend the staff to full height so that the light will be visible from all directions. See Chapter 4 for all details regarding navigation lights.
Under the International Rules only, a powerdriven vessel that is less than 7 m (23 feet) in length and whose maximum speed does not exceed 7 knots—typically a lightly powered dinghy—may show only an all-round white light that is visible for two miles. Sidelights are not mandatory but should be shown if practicable. Under both International and Inland Rules, a vessel less than 7 m (23 feet) long and propelled solely by sail or oars need have only a flashlight handy to show a white light in sufficient time to avoid a collision. Dinghy owners take note.
Equipment for Safety
Equipment for safety and convenience was covered in Chapter 3; some items will be covered again here with special emphasis on their applicability to smaller craft.
Figure 7-13 No matter how dependable a motor may seem, a paddle or pair of oars should be carried on all small boats for emergencies.
Lifesaving Devices
Smaller boats, especially those with outboard motors, are more likely to capsize or sink than are larger inboard boats; consequently, there is a greater possibility that the occupants will find themselves in the water. Do not skimp on personal flotation devices; carry at least the number legally required (see Chapter 3). Wearable PFDs of the proper size are required for each person on board. (Additionally, a throwable PFD, such as an approved cushion, is required on each craft over 16 feet [4.9 m] in length.) Adult nonswimmers, handicapped persons, anyone wearing a cast, and children should wear life preservers at all times when underway. (There are legal requirements regarding children in most jurisdictions.) Special-purpose flotation devices approved by the U.S. Coast Guard, such as some hunter’s jackets and some waterskiing vests, are legally acceptable; many water-skiers wear a belt rather than a jacket, but this does not count toward the required number of life jackets onboard.
Paddle or Oars
Required by regulations in some state and local jurisdictions (and by plain common sense everywhere), a paddle or pair of oars should be on all smaller boats. They could be the only way of reaching safety in the event of motor failure. Most outboard boats row or paddle quite clumsily and with considerable effort, but the means to do so should be on board; see Figure 7-13.
Anchor & Line
Another item of common sense, and in some areas, boating regulations, is a suitable anchor and line long enough to anchor in all areas where the boat is used; see Figure 7-14. (Obviously, this concept must be applied with reason when the boat is used off very deep coasts, but when purchasing line it is better to get too much than too little.) See Chapter 9 for details on anchoring.
Figure 7-14 An anchor and line are required by some states but not by federal regulations. In any case, however, it is a good safety practice to have a means of anchoring in an emergency, such as an engine failure. A short length of chain between the anchor and line is desirable (see Chapter 9).
Bailer
All small boats should be equipped with a manual bailer. This can be a scoop purchased for this purpose or one homemade from a household plastic jug. Transom drains are effective underway for many fast boats, but these must have a means of positive closure when not in use. Electric bilge pumps will be found on many larger outboard or sterndrive boats. A large sponge is frequently convenient for getting that last little bit of water out of a small boat.
Flashlight or Lantern
Every small boat should be equipped with a flashlight or electric lantern, whether or not plans include using the boat after dark. The light should be waterproof, and it should float if accidentally dropped overboard. Extra batteries, stored in a waterproof container, will often prove valuable in an emergency. All inuse and spare batteries should be renewed at the start of each boating season, regardless of their apparent condition. The flashlight is also important while traveling on the road in case of trailer or car trouble.
Visual Distress Signals
All boats 16 feet (4.9 m) or more in length operating in coastal waters or wide connecting bodies must carry a specified minimum of visual distress signals; smaller boats need carry them only when operating at night. The signals must be U.S. Coast Guard approved; signals are classified for day or night use or a combination of both. Common sense suggests carrying more than the legal minimum.
Radio
A radio is often installed when the outboard motor has a battery for electric starting and an alternator to keep the battery charged. A VHF radio with its smaller antenna is especially suitable for smaller boats. Small handheld VHF sets (refer to Chapter 20) are useful in outboard boats, especially if used with an installed antenna.
Operational Equipment
In addition to equipment carried on board for safety reasons, there are many items that will be needed or useful in the normal operation of smaller boats. The specific items will, of course, vary with the size of the craft and the uses to which it is put.
Compass
Except when used on the smallest of lakes, no outboard or similar boat should be without a magnetic compass. Select one of adequate size and quality, and install it properly. Refer to Chapter 13 for more information.
As most smaller boats are relatively open, it is particularly important that the compass is shielded from the sun’s direct rays. When not in use, remove it and store it out of the light or place a cover over it.
Charts
Carry charts for the waters you use; on inland lakes and rivers, these may be called “maps”; refer to Chapter 15. Learn to use a chart with your compass, and do use it often under favorable conditions even when not strictly necessary. This practice is excellent training and will prepare you for using the chart with confidence and efficiency should an emergency arise. Make a point of keeping track of where you are at all times.
Tools
Every boat, no matter how small, should carry at least a few simple hand tools. The minimum should be a screwdriver, pliers, and an adjustable open-end wrench. Consideration might be given to having two or more screwdrivers as well as wrenches of various sizes. A spark-plug wrench suitable for your motor is recommended.
Safety Chain
Most outboard motors are clamped to the craft’s transom (some of the larger ones may be through-bolted). To protect against accidental loss overboard should the clamps loosen with vibration, a short safety chain (or cable) is often used between a connecting point on the motor and a ring securely fastened to the hull. Chains or lengths of steel cable, frequently plasticcoated to reduce rusting, may be inexpensively purchased for this purpose already equipped with snap fittings at each end. This is cheap insurance against the loss of an expensive motor in deep water. With locking fittings, they also guard against theft.
Extra Fuel Tanks
The very smallest outboard motors have an integral fuel tank, but those of four or more horsepower typically operate from remote tanks that are more convenient with their larger capacity. Boats 18 feet (5.5 m) or so in length, with high-horsepower motors, usually have built-in tanks.
It is often necessary to carry additional fuel to make long runs without stopping. Spare tanks are discussed later in this chapter.
Steering & Other Controls
The simplest outboard motors have controls right on the motor itself; see Figure 7-15. A steering handle, or tiller, is used to turn the motor from side to side. A throttle may be built into the steering arm or it may be a separate lever on the motor. A gearshift lever for forward, neutral, and reverse is usually located on the side of the powerhead. Controls for choking and carburetor-jet adjustment are usually on the front of the motor.
Figure 7-15 On smaller motors, all controls are typically mounted on the powerhead. On the motor shown here, the shift lever is on the side of the steering arm, just behind the throttle twist grip.
Remote steering and engine controls may be an option on motors of about 10 to 25 hp, and are standard on larger engines. This allows the operator to sit forward in the boat for greater visibility, with a wheel for steering and levers for throttle and gearshift control. A control also may be provided to change the angle of the engine against the transom to adjust the riding trim of the boat.
Steering controls may consist of a continuous loop of metal cable (usually plastic-covered) running from one side of the engine forward, around a drum on the shaft of the steering wheel, and then aft to the other side of the motor. Pulleys are used to guide the cable, which may run forward on one side of the boat and aft on the other, or may run fore and aft on the same side.
Rod steering uses a rack-and-pinion gear at the steering wheel to push and pull a stiff cable through a protective housing. The other end of the cable is attached to the motor, moving it from side to side around its central pivot as the steering wheel is turned back and forth. Rod steering gives smooth control and is free of the hazards of the exposed cables of the other type.
In hydraulic systems, steering-wheel motion is transmitted through fluid-filled lines to the stern, activating a push-pull rod attached to the motor or motors.
Throttle and gearshift controls consist of a stiff cable within a sheath to transmit the back-and-forth motion required. In some models, the two controls are combined at the helm in a single lever that is pushed forward to go ahead and pulled backward, through a neutral center position, to go astern. This mechanism is somewhat more complex than separate throttle and gearshift controls.
Tachometer
This instrument, when properly calibrated, indicates engine revolutions per minute (rpm). A tachometer is important when running trials to select the optimum propeller, and it often is used as a reference for operating at cruising or trolling speeds. In the absence of a speedometer, a series of timed runs at regular increments of engine speed can be used to establish a speed curve for the boat. This curve then gives you a boat speed through the water at any engine setting. See Chapter 16, for details on establishing a speed curve.
An electronic tachometer can be fitted to almost any outboard motor; it is a simple job requiring little technical know-how and very little time.
Speedometer
As an alternative to developing a speed curve with a series of timed runs, a speedometer can be installed, and speed taken directly from it. This instrument also is quick and simple to install, and the more expensive models offer a reasonable degree of accuracy. Many models can be calibrated by doing a series of timed runs, but even if a speedometer is not accurate in absolute terms, it can be used to determine the relative speeds obtained with various motor and propeller combinations. Calibration is necessary, however, when it is to be used in navigation. Onboard speedometers measure only speed through the water, not over the bottom as a GPS receiver does.
Electronic Depth Sounder
Many smaller craft can carry an electronic depth sounder and put it to good use. Special transom mounts for the transducer are available for smaller craft where through-hull mounting may not be practicable.
Boat Covers
A cover keeps dirt out of the boat and helps to protect the interior between periods of use and during off-season storage; see Figure 7-16. Usually of Dacron or similar synthetic fabric, covers may be available in a style that covers your entire boat, from stem to stern, including the outboard motor; others may cover only the open parts of the boat. Covers are excellent for keeping out rain as well as the dirt and leaves that accumulate when the boat is on its trailer. Be sure that the cover provides adequate ventilation for the interior to prevent rot of interior woodwork, and other forms of fungus growth.
Figure 7-16 A well-fitted cover will prevent rain and falling debris from entering the boat in its berth afloat or ashore or while traveling. Covers may cover the entire boat or only the open portion; the motor may or may not be covered.
The cover must fit the boat and must be capable of being adequately secured by means of snaps or drawstring. (Snaps or other mechanical fasteners should be protected from corrosion by a nonstaining lubricant; a silicone grease stick is excellent for this purpose.) A cover is of great value when a boat is being trailered, but it must be fastened down adequately to prevent wind damage. In outdoor storage, a cover must also be adequately supported internally to prevent the formation of pools of rainwater that will stretch and eventually tear it, dumping the water into the boat.
For some small boats, tops are available to provide protection against rain and shade from the hot sun while the boat is in operation. Side and rear panels, with clear plastic inserts, also may be available, offering considerable protection against rain and spray, as well as allowing comfortable boating in cool weather; see Figure 7-17. Such tops and panels should be removed before trailering a boat at highway speeds.
Figure 7-17 The addition of a top, often with side and rear panels including clear plastic, can make a boat more comfortable in rainy or cool weather. Often such a craft can be used for weekend cruises or other short trips.
Registration & Numbering
Although requirements vary in details for various states, nearly all boats, including personal watercraft, will require registration and the affixing of numbers on each bow; refer to Chapter 2.
OUTBOARD MOTOR BASICS
A boat equipped with an outboard motor or inboard/outboard drive can be used for widely varied recreational purposes, some of which include fishing, waterskiing, cruising, and diving. In any application, greater safety and enjoyment will result when you understand and employ the following boating practices.
Adjusting the Motor
Begin your outboarding by installing the motor properly on the boat, according to the manufacturer’s diagrams. Seat a single motor squarely on the center of the boat’s transom and securely tighten the bracket screws. Some motors come equipped with a special mounting plate; with others, you may want to make use of a rubber pad to help cushion vibrations and to prevent the transom from being marred. Be sure to connect a safety chain or cable from the motor to the boat’s hull; a lock may be desirable for security against theft.
Twin motors are usually installed by a dealer, as are large single motors of the high-horsepower range. Twin motors should have the proper spacing—22 inches (56 cm) is recommended by the American Boat and Yacht Council (ABYC) for motors up to 75 hp, and 32 inches (81 cm) for higher-horsepower motors on single-hull craft. Standard motor position dimensions are furnished to the boat manufacturers; see Figure 7-18. Motors on catamarans are normally placed at the stern of each hull; this wider spacing is an advantage in maneuvering.
Figure 7-18 Standards are set by the American Boat and Yacht Council for the width of transom cutouts (A above) and for the center-to-center spacing of twin outboard motors (B). The ABYC standard also includes other critical dimensions.
If a combination of a large and small motor is used, the large one is mounted on the boat’s centerline, with the small “kicker” off to one side, usually on a bracket specifically designed for such use. (Such a bracket allows the motor to be raised entirely clear of the water when not in use, thereby reducing drag.) The low horsepower of the small motor will not present any significant steering problems from its off-center position.
Motor Height
Although there is a high degree of standardization in the design of transom cutouts for motor mounting, it is wise to check that the lower unit of the motor is correctly located with respect to the bottom of the hull. Standard shaft lengths are 15 and 20 inches (38 and 51 cm), and 25 inches (64 cm) for high-horsepower engines. There are variations, however, and a transom can be modified, if necessary, to ensure proper motor positioning. The anti-cavitation plate on the lower unit should line up with the transom chine, except for some installations on deep-V hulls.
If the motor is located too high, a smooth flow of water will not reach the propeller; it will not get a proper “grip” on the water. This may cause “ventilation,” in which the propeller spins in aerated water with possible damage to the engine from excessive rpm. If the motor is located too low, drag will be increased due to the greater area of the lower unit in the water and a distorted flow over and under the anti-cavitation plate. Attention to this detail of motor installation will help provide increased speed and decreased fuel consumption.
Thrust-Line Adjustment
Most outboard motors are equipped with a tilt adjustment, allowing a boater to vary the angle of thrust of the propeller. For best performance, the drive of the propeller should be in a line parallel to the flat surface of the water at the boat’s most efficient operating angle, whether as a planing hull or in the displacement mode.
If the motor is in too close to the transom, the thrust line is downward from the horizontal, pushing the stern up and the bow down, making the boat “plow” through the water unnecessarily. On the other hand, if the motor is tilted too far out from the transom, the thrust line is upward, and the bow is forced up too high while the stern “squats”; see Figure 7-19.
Boats differ in design, and loading conditions vary widely with any specific boat, so manufacturers make tilt-angle adjustment as easy as possible. On sterndrive engines and some larger outboard motors, an electro-hydraulic control is provided; just push the button for “up” or “down.”
Be aware of the inefficiency of an improper thrust angle, and do not neglect to change the adjustment to your current operating conditions. The best angle may vary with water conditions. On some boats, an adjustment with the motor tilted out (bow up) for smooth water may give more speed. A better ride in rough water may be obtained with the motor trimmed in a bit. Remember that only with actual trials on your boat will you be able to tell for sure.
Figure 7-19 The trim of the lower unit has a significant effect on the planing angle of the boat, which alters top speed and handling. At A, the drive is trimmed too far “in,” while at B it is too far “out.” The drive at C is properly trimmed.
Special Applications of Tilt
While underway, the tilt feature of outboard motor and sterndrive lower units can be used to advantage for several special situations. If the propeller becomes fouled with weeds, it is, for example, often a simple matter to stop the motor, tilt it up, clear off the vegetation, lower the motor, restart it, and then continue on your way. If a smaller motor shears its pin, it is often possible to replace it with the motor tilted up, making it unnecessary to remove the motor completely in order to work on it in the boat.
It is also possible to tilt the outboard motor or lower unit up far enough so the boat can clear shoal areas. Take care not to tilt it so much that the cooling water intake comes above the surface, and watch out that the propeller does not strike rocks or other hard objects that might damage it. Proceed slowly when using this technique.
With I/Os, many manufacturers recommend not to operate with the drive unit partially or all the way up. Otherwise, you risk excessive wear on the flexible couplings.
Mixture Controls
Many smaller outboard motors have controls for adjusting the fuel-to-air ratio; see Figure 7-20. This adjustment allows you to obtain optimum performance while cruising at low speeds and, in the case of some smaller motors, for high speeds as well. Adjustment controls are located outside the motor cover so that they can be used easily while underway.
You can minimize the possibility of engine damage due to improper settings and help achieve the best results by strictly following the instructions in your owner’s manual.
Changes in fuel, air temperature, and altitude (such as going from mountain lakes to a lower elevation or vice versa) may require changes in mixtures. Any adjustment should be made with the motor thoroughly warmed up and the boat loaded to normal trim. Many motors also have a manual choke control for a richer mixture of fuel and air for starting.
Figure 7-20 Smaller outboard motors have one or more carburetor controls brought out to the front of the motor case to make possible the adjustment of fuel-to-air mixtures for various operating conditions. Be sure to follow the instructions in your operator’s manual.
Fuels & Oils
The drive for a cleaner environment has resulted in the mandated use of “no lead” gasoline with other chemicals added to maintain octane ratings.
In many cases these fuels have given older motors a few problems. The effects of ethanol-containing gasoline on marine inboard and outboard engines and tanks are discussed in Chapter 21.
A two-stroke outboard motor has its lubricating oil mixed into the gasoline fuel supply; there is no separate crankcase. Consequently, special oil properties such as “low ash” are required, and many normal features such as detergents must be limited or avoided.
The best oil to use in a two-stroke motor is one specifically made and sold for that purpose by oil companies or outboard manufacturers. The oil will be certified as TC-W (two-cycle, watercooled) and it will contain no harmful compounds. Take note that although the motor manufacturers do not make the oils that bear their names, presumably they set the specifications for them. Using oil from the motor’s manufacturer will ensure greater compatibility between the oil and motor (and possibly lessen any difficulties with warranty claims).
The current TC-W specification is now TC-W3; this addresses the higher horsepower engines. It meets even more demanding specifications in order to cope with the now-common use of lowgrade “pipeline” gasolines. It can be used in any size motor. (TC-W and TC-W2 oils are no longer produced and sold.)
Outboard motors are generally of low compression ratio and can use fuels of modest octane rating. Actually these engines now are designed for these fuels (many boaters find it desirable to use midgrade 89 octane gasoline). Keep in mind that marine engines normally operate under a constant load, unlike autos and trucks that go uphill and downhill, with frequent changes of load. It is always best to follow the fuel recommendations in your owner’s manual. Remember, with the newer four-stroke outboards, no fuel/oil mixture is required. But with two-stroke outboard motors using a mixture of gasoline and lubricating oil, it is essential that both of these be of the correct type and that the mixture ratio be that specified by the manufacturer.
Table 7-1 The row for 48:1 is commonly used for a 50 to 1 mix, and the row for 96:1 when a 100 to 1 mix is specified (1 pint = 0.47 L; 1 gallon = 3.8 L).
Oil/Fuel Mixture Ratios
Motor manufacturers specify the correct ratio of gasoline to oil for their models. Although for older motors the ratio was 24 to 1, for most motors today it is 50 to 1. Motors made outside the U.S. may have different requirements. The amount of oil to be used is sometimes given as ounces or fractions of a pint that should be added for each gallon of gasoline; see Table 7-1.
Some marinas now have a special pump installed that dispenses premixed gas and oil. In some instances this mixture is fixed at an established blend, usually at a 50 to 1 ratio; however, at other pumps, controls can be set to any one of several standard gas/oil ratios.
Many outboard motors are now oil injected, providing an optimum ratio for any speed. This is especially valuable for the higher horsepower sizes, enabling them to be used at the lower end of their speed range without fouling the motor; see Figure 7-21.
Figure 7-21 An oil-injection system will automatically mix oil and fuel to the precise operating ratio between 50 to 1 and 100 to 1. It reduces oil consumption at idle speeds to reduce smoke and pollution. The oil reservoir is about the size of a battery box and can hold enough oil to treat at least 150 gallons (568 liters) of gasoline.
Fueling Procedures
There are two aspects of fueling an outboard boat that must be given careful attention—safety and the proper mixing of the oil and gasoline. Fueling a boat safely is an essential element of good seamanship. Whether you are planning a day’s outing or an extended cruise, before starting out make sure you have enough fuel on board, and if any is needed, fill your tanks safely. Refer to Chapter 11 for information about the safety aspects of fueling.
Tanks of smaller than 6 gallons (23 L) should be removed from the boat when refueling; see Figure 7-22. Newer outboard motor oils make filling portable tanks easy because they mix readily with gasoline. Use the engine manufacturer’s recommendations to determine the amount of oil for the required amount of fuel. Pour the oil into the tank, and then fill it with gasoline. The inward flow of the fuel will cause the oil to mix thoroughly and additional mixing is not needed. (If the tank is empty—dry—it is best to fill it about one-quarter full of gasoline before pouring in the oil.) Shaking the tank is not necessary. Wipe off the outside of the tank and return it to the boat after any odor of fumes has disappeared.
For safety, portable tanks should be secured in the boat. A simple way is to provide wooden blocks on the hull or floorboards to prevent sideways or endways movement of the tank, with straps over the top of the tank to hold it down in rough going.
If your fuel tanks are larger than 6 gallons (23 L), they are best left in the boat for filling. These, and permanently installed tanks, are not filled until all doors, hatches, windows, etc. have been closed to keep any gasoline vapors from getting below. After fueling and cleaning up, open all hatches and ports, and allow time for ventilation to clear bilges and any enclosed spaces before starting the engine.
Figure 7-22 As a safety measure, portable fuel tanks should be removed from a boat and filled on the gas pier or wharf. Wipe the tank clean and dry before putting it back on board.
Pour oil into the fill pipe of a fixed tank before it is filled with gasoline. Fuel flow will carry the oil into the tank where the newer outboard motor oils mix rapidly. Most higher horsepower engines now have separate gasoline and lubricant tanks that eliminate mixing oil into the fuel. Lubricant is automatically mixed with the fuel in metered amounts. This results in lower oil consumption and cleaner-burning engines.
Extra Fuel Tanks
If is often necessary to carry additional fuel to make long runs without stops. Select a spare tank or container carefully; it must be made specifically for use as a gasoline container for marine use and conform to recent and proposed regulations that limit the permeability of fuel tanks used on boats. Homemade or converted tanks are hazardous. Tanks from the manufacturer of your motor or from a reputable manufacturer specializing in marine tanks, are best.
Any additional fuel tanks should be carried on board in a well-ventilated area and secured against unnecessary movement. They should be protected from spray or rain. Inspect at least once each season. Dents and scratches can damage the plating that protects underlying steel from rust. A tank that shows any signs of rust should be replaced.
THE TRAILER
The addition of a trailer to your boating outfit provides considerable operational flexibility to the skipper. It allows traveling to distant boating areas that would be otherwise inaccessible, and storage of the boat at the owner’s home—saving marina fees and facilitating routine maintenance. Also, there is less of a chance for marine organisms to attach themselves to the hull. This reduces the need for periodic and costly applications of antifouling paint.
Selecting the Right Rig
The owner of a trailered boat faces the unique challenge of not only having to select a type of boat and propulsion but also to match up that boat with a trailer and a vehicle that can safely haul, launch, and retrieve it; see Figure 7-23. (The combination of a boat, motor, and trailer is often referred to as a “rig.”) This imposes definite limits on the size and style of boat. Most trailerboats fall into the 14- to 25-foot (4.3 m to 7.6 m) category and weigh 1,000 to 4,000 pounds (454 to 1,814 kg). Although boats up to 40 feet (12 m) or longer can be trailered legally without special permits, 8.5-foot (2.6 m) width limitations in most states and provinces mean that only high-performance or specialty boats much over 25 feet (7.6 m) fall into the trailerable category.
Figure 7-23 A typical well-designed, light-duty trailer is often fitted for one size and weight of boat only. It can still offer reliable and affordable use over many years if properly maintained.
Trailerboaters are also limited in a practical sense by the expense of specialized tow vehicles that are needed to haul large and heavy loads. The choice of tow vehicle, boat, and trailer must be made carefully so the combination works well, while fitting the boater’s needs. If you already own a boat, shop carefully for a suitable trailer and vehicle. If you already own a vehicle suited and equipped for towing, you will be limited in your purchase of a boat and trailer by the vehicle’s rated towing capacity.
Considering Vehicles
The more a tow vehicle weighs, the more sway it can absorb. In other words, weight determines whether the tow vehicle will be in firm control of the trailer or the trailer will be pushing the vehicle around. A heavier trailer can throw both vehicles into a violent swaying motion that could cause the driver to lose control. A tow vehicle should weigh at least as much as the rig it is pulling.
Wheelbase length is another important factor to consider when gauging the ideal fit between trailer and tow vehicle. Cars and small trucks with short wheelbases make poor tow vehicles. Alternatively, long-bed pickups, with their equally long wheelbases, perform excellently. Just like a tow vehicle that is too light, one that is too short may be controlled by a trailer. But note that vehicles with long wheelbases can be hard to maneuver in tight quarters.
Horsepower is another consideration when choosing the ideal tow vehicle. How much is enough? One rule of thumb suggests adding the weight of the boat and trailer and then knocking off one of the zeros. The remainder gives an idea of how many cubic inches of engine displacement you need to adequately haul the load. For example, a 3,000-pound rig would require a 302-cu.-in. (5.0 L) engine, while a 3,500-pound rig requires a 351-cu.-in. (5.8 L) engine. Similarly a large 4,600-pound rig needs a 460-cu.-in. (7.5 L) big-block vehicle engine.
When looking at vehicles, there are other factors that should be added to the equation. Remember that four-wheel-drive vehicles work as well on slippery launch ramps as they do on ice and rain-soaked pavement. Also note that a manual transmission’s clutch will wear out sooner than an automatic transmission when it is used for extensive towing. In addition, the automatic is much easier to use, giving you freedom from the constant up- and down-shifting necessary to keep the engine on the proper portion of the torque curve.
Depending on the engine’s horsepower rating and its rear axle ratio, a tow vehicle is assigned what is called a Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) rating. This figure specifies the maximum loaded weight in pounds of the tow vehicle, its boat, and the trailer. When you subtract tow vehicle weight from GVW, the difference tells you how large a trailered boat your car or truck can safely pull.
Vehicle Modifications
A car used with a trailer may need some modifications to give fully satisfactory performance. Rear springs and/or shock absorbers may require replacement by heavier duty units because of the added weight transferred from the trailer tongue. The turn-signal flasher unit may need replacement with one that can handle the added load of the trailer’s signals.
If a heavy trailer is to be pulled, it may be desirable or even necessary to add a cooler for crankcase oil and transmission fluid. Vehicle manufacturers are becoming increasingly specific in the maximum loads that can be towed without modifications, and just what modifications are available. When in doubt, be sure to check your owner’s manual, and be careful not to void your warranty.
Because trailering a big boat imposes heavy loads on the engine, the drivetrain, suspension, electrical system, brakes, and tires, any vehicle destined to pull a boat really needs the special factory towing package that is usually available. This will greatly extend the life of your vehicle.
Driving with a boat trailer behind the car is not as easy as ordinary driving, especially when the craft is high and wide. Some states require unobstructed rear view mirrors on both sides of the towing vehicle. If the boat is quite wide, it is best to install external mirrors (refer to Figure 7-38) that project out far enough to give a clear view behind the boat; these are the mirrors often used on cars that pull house trailers.
TRAILER TERMINOLOGY
Ball mount That part of the hitch that connects the hitch ball to the coupler on the trailer.
Bearing Buddy A commercial product that replaces the dust cover on the axle hub; as well, this item allows the wheel bearings to be greased without disassembly.
Bumper hitch Trailer hitch bolted to the rear bumper. Usually rated for Class I towing applications.
Class I, II, III, and IV hitches Weight-carrying hitches whose various capacities are rated at gross trailer weight and tongue weight. See text for more details.
Coupler That part of the trailer that connects the tongue to the hitch ball.
Electric brakes Independent braking system for a trailer, actuated electrically from the tow vehicle.
Frame-mounted hitch A hitch that is mounted or welded to the frame of the tow vehicle.
Gross axle weight rating (GAW) Specifies the maximum weight an axle is designed to carry. This figure includes the weight of the vehicle plus any load supported by the axle. Caution: Never exceed the GAW.
Gross trailer weight rating (GTW) Weight of the trailer with all of its cargo.
Gross vehicle weight rating (GVW) The maximum weight the vehicle is designed to carry—includes the weight of the vehicle itself plus any load normally added.
Hitch ball That part of the hitch that couples to the trailer—in essence, a ball joint. The ball allows the trailer to swivel freely when cornering.
Hitch receiver The component part of a hitch that receives the shank. Also called a hitch box.
Receiver hitch A hitch with a receiver, from which the hitch shank can be removed.
Safety chains Required by law in most states, these connect the trailer to the hitch, providing an extra measure of safety.
Spring bars Spring steel bars in a weight-distributing hitch that distribute weight throughout the tow vehicle and trailer.
Step bumper hitch A hitch found on many utility vehicles.
Surge brakes A hydraulic braking system that is activated by the momentum of the trailer pushing against the tow vehicle during deceleration.
Tongue weight The amount of trailer weight that is measured at the tongue.
Weight-carrying hitch A trailer hitch that accepts all of the tongue weight of a trailer.
Weight-distributing hitch A framemounted hitch that consists of a shank, a ball mount and spring bars, as well as hookup brackets.
Wiring harness Wiring connecting a trailer’s lights to the tow vehicle’s electrical system.
Selecting a Trailer Like boats and motors, trailers also come in many varieties; they range in price from economy to premium. A light-duty trailer, such as Figure 7-23, may be adequate if all your boating is done locally; a heavy-duty one may be needed if you plan long hauls.
In general, premium models use better construction techniques and materials, and they are often better designed. Economy-priced trailers tend to have fewer cross-members along their frames, which means they have fewer support rollers, with wider spaces between them. Many inexpensive models also use a lighter-gauge steel stock in their frames and are usually bolted together rather than welded—a good weld is a far stronger bond.
Adequacy
The trailer for your boat must be adequate in both weight-carrying capacity and length. Underbuy in either of these aspects and your craft will ultimately suffer. Each trailer will have a “capacity plate” with various data on it; see Figure 7-24.
The trailer must be able to carry the weight of your boat, motor(s), and the gear stowed in the boat. As a general rule, it is important to remember that the capacity of the trailer should exceed the combined gross weight of boat and motor by about 20 percent. This surplus capacity is intended to handle the extra weight of any gear you will be carrying on board. If there is any doubt, buy the next larger model. Don’t underestimate weights; boat weights given by manufacturers may be for basic models, so try to account for all equipment. Make a detailed list of each item that you plan to install or carry in the boat and its weight, and be sure to include a generous allowance for “miscellaneous.” If possible, use a truck scale to weigh the trailer alone, then the trailer with empty boat and motor, and finally the complete rig with all gear and fuel—you may be surprised at the final gross weight!
Figure 7-24 The capacity plate on this trailer tongue shows its load capacity, tire size and required pressure, and other data.
Length
Trailer length is critical because the boat’s stern area, particularly the transom, must have adequate support. The boat must be able to fit onto the trailer bed so that the aftermost supports extend at least an inch or two beyond the transom; see Figure 7-25. If there is any overhang, the hull will be distorted. This is also true for sterndrive craft, but it is particularly important for outboards, where the full weight of the motor(s) is on the transom. A “hook” (a downward bend) in the hull at the stern, caused by a too-short trailer, can affect both the boat’s speed and its general handling characteristics.
Figure 7-25 As the full weight of an outboard motor or sterndrive is carried on the boat’s transom, adequate support under this part of the hull is essential.
Supports
In a boat’s natural environment—the water—the hull is uniformly supported; there are no concentrations of pressure on the hull. However, a trailer can provide support only in limited areas or even points, so the trailer bed must fit the contours of the hull as closely as possible. Plenty of padding and bracing also may be needed.
Supports may take the form of ROLLERS or of padded bars or STRINGERS (BUNKS), or a combination of some of each. Some trailers, with multiple pairs of rollers on pivoted bars, are designed to conform to the hull shape automatically; these are the SELF-LEVELING models. Each type of support system has its advantages and disadvantages; the way the boat will normally be launched and loaded must be considered.
Rollers of hard rubber are widely used on trailers that tilt and allow the boat to move backward into the water by gravity; see Figure 7-26. Their disadvantage is that each roller has very little area of contact with the hull with consequence of high pressure in those areas. The more rollers there are, the better, provided that the height of each is adjusted properly; the depth of the indentation into the roller by the keel is a rough guide as to the weight being carried at that point.
Figure 7-26 A system of pivoted arms with pairs of rollers lets this load-leveler type of tandem-axle trailer conform to the shape of a boat’s bottom automatically after being adjusted for length and beam.
Padded bar supports provide the maximum area in contact with the hull, and thus the minimum of point contact pressure. These are excellent for boats that normally are lifted from the trailer, as by a crane’s slings. They have considerable surface friction, however, and are generally less suitable for sliding the boat off the trailer into the water—unless special features are provided.
There are trailers that use a combination of rollers and padded bars, with a lever system that lowers the bars for launching and retrieval and raises them for additional support when the boat is fully onto the trailer.
There also should be side supports to hold the boat firmly in position on the trailer bed, and a bow chock to keep the boat from moving farther forward. All of these supports must be adjustable and positioned so that they can carry out their functions. Location of the bow chock, for example, should be adjusted so that the transom will be directly over its supports. The boat’s position on the trailer also affects the weight at the trailer tongue and coupling. Any unbalanced condition, once the hull is properly mated to the trailer bed, is properly corrected by shifting the location of the axle and wheels, not the bow chock.
Wheels & Tires
Many trailer tires are smaller in diameter than automotive tires. Small wheels position the axle closer to the ground so that the trailer rides as low as possible. A low center of gravity optimizes stability during turns and in crosswinds.
But the downside is that smaller tires sink deeper into potholes and turn at a higher rpm than the tires on the car. These two factors translate into a shorter tire life. As a rule, small tires are best for light boats over short hauls, while larger and/or tandem tires are better for heavier rigs and long hauls. The larger tires provide a smoother ride.
Larger trailers, over 3,000 lb (1,360 kg) capacity, often come with tandem wheels—four tires on two axles; see Figure 7-27. Still larger trailers, over 9,000 lb (4,080 kg) capacity, have three or more axles and six or more tires; see Figure 7-25. There are benefits and drawbacks to multi-axle arrangements. On the one hand, they cost more to purchase and maintain. And because they resist sharp turns, maneuvering in close quarters is more difficult. On the other hand, four or six wheels track very straight—an immense help when backing a big rig down a launch ramp.
Buy the best tires you can afford for both tow vehicle and trailer; they will last longer. A “ST” designation on the sidewall indicates “special trailer” used for boat trailers. These tires have stronger sidewalls than “P” (passenger) and “LT” (light truck) tires. Trailer tires are often odd sizes not readily available when on the road. All trailers should have a spare tire mounted on a wheel that is locked to the trailer.
Figure 7-27 When the weight of a boat becomes too great for a single axle, it is time to consider a multiaxle trailer. Models are available with two, three, or more axles for larger craft.
Suspension
Although more expensive, TORSION-BAR SUSPENSION is superior to the leaf-spring type. Wheels are suspended independently, making for a softer ride for the boat over bumps and potholes. The trailer will track better, and torsion-bar suspension will allow the frame and boat to ride lower for better stability. This type will have a longer life than the leaf-spring type, which eventually may rust together and lose effectiveness.
Hitches & Couplers
The HITCH is a very important component, the main link between vehicle and trailer. HITCH BALLS are mounted on fixed platforms or on drawbars that insert into receiver-type hitches. COUPLERS mounted on the front of the trailer tongue are designed to fit neatly over the various balls, with a lever or screw on top that engages a latch that encloses the ball. Once the screw or lever is engaged, the coupler prevents the trailer tongue from bouncing off the ball, while still allowing the trailer to pivot from side to side and, to a certain extent, up and down.
Hitches are divided into four classes:
• Class I hitches (standard fixed-ball bumper hitches) are designed for light-duty loads of up to 2,000 pounds gross trailer weight (GTW) with no more than 200 pounds of tongue weight (amount of trailer weight measured at the tongue). The utility bumper of a light truck or van fits in this category. Some may have frame attachment points.
• Class II hitches are weight-carrying hitches, fixed ball or receiver type, designed to tow up to 3,500 pounds GTW loads with no more than 300 pounds tongue weight. These are basically bumper hitches for the heavier-duty trucks and vans, or usually brackets installed on the car’s frame, since few car bumpers can now handle this kind of weight alone. Figure 7-28 shows a hitch of this class.
Figure 7-28 This Class II framemounting hitch features a removable ball mount for better appearance and convenience.
• Class III hitches are weight-carrying or weight-distributing receiving hitches designed to tow in the range of 5,000-7,500 pounds GTW, depending on the size and structure of the tow vehicle. These frame hitches distribute weight using spring bars, mounted between the trailer and the hitch, that transfer a portion of the tongue weight to the front wheels of the tow vehicle.
• Class IV hitches are weight-carrying or weight-distributing hitches designed to tow in the range of 7,500-10,000 pounds GTW, depending on the size and structure of the tow vehicle.
A trailer hitch should be secured to the towing vehicle’s frame either with bolts (using lock washers) or by welding.
Hitch Balls & Chains
Hitch balls on the towing vehicle must match the coupler on the trailer tongue and its GTW rating. Balls vary in diameter from 17.8 inches to 25.16 inches; shanks vary from ¾ inch to 13.8 inches. For the same size balls, shanks may vary and have different GTW ratings. The diameter and GTW rating are normally stamped on each ball. Never use a mismatched coupler and ball.
At least one SAFETY CHAIN between the trailer and the towing vehicle is a must, and two are desirable; see Figure 7-29. When hooking them to the hitch, cross the chains so that the trailer will remain attached to the towing vehicle and under control. It is highly desirable that they cradle the tongue of the trailer and prevent it from dropping to the roadway, but this may not be possible if the chains are long enough to permit the required turns. Check local laws.
Figure 7-29 There is a right way and a wrong way to hook up trailer safety chains. The open end of the hook should go up through the hole, not down through it, so that the hook cannot bounce out. Use of a shackle would provide greater safety. Cross the chains under the trailer tongue so that they will support the tongue if the trailer coupling should fail.
Keep in mind that the chains need to be long enough so that they don’t bind in the middle of a tight turn or when backing down a launching ramp, yet not so long that they drag on the pavement—never hook the chains to the bumper. Chains must have adequate strength; chains furnished with a new trailer will normally more than meet this requirement but may be too long and require shortening. If cables are furnished rather than chains, it is desirable that they be replaced with chains.
On trailers equipped with surge brakes (see below), there may also be a breakaway cable or light chain. Attach it to the auxiliary brake handle mounted on the tongue. Should the trailer break free, the crisscrossed chains will keep the trailer from pole-vaulting, while the breakaway cable activates the surge brake.
There are also available now coupler and hitch combinations, such as the Saf-T-Tow, that provide positive action to prevent the trailer tongue from dropping to the road surface or crashing into the rear of the towing vehicle should the coupler come off the ball of the hitch.
Brakes
Generally, a lightly loaded trailer can be easily handled by the towing vehicle’s brakes. Larger loads need an independent trailer braking system. Minimum trailer weights for brake requirement regulations vary from one state to another. It is wise to have even better brakes than the minimum legal requirement. Some trailer manufacturers suggest trailer brakes for any load over 1,000 pounds.
Trailers can be equipped with electric brakes that are activated in tandem with the towing vehicle’s hydraulic system, or manually via a dashboard or steering-column control. This system can be adjusted according to the trailer load and works well on the road, permitting independent braking of the trailer to either slow down or even stop the whole rig. On the other hand, when backing up, the system tends to be less efficient. It’s also prone to corrosion and component failures after being immersed in water.
A very popular choice is surge brakes; see Figure 7-30. Hydraulically operated and independent from the tow vehicle, these are activated by a pressure-sensitive master cylinder in a special coupler mounted on the trailer tongue. These brakes are activated when the tow vehicle slows down: As the trailer surges forward, the trailer brakes come on, and the harder the load pushes, the harder the brakes are applied. The brakes come off as the trailer slows and the load on the coupler is relieved. In this way, the surge brakes control themselves, according to the trailer’s braking needs.
Figure 7-30 The surge type of coupler shown above senses the trailer’s momentum when the towing vehicle slows and automatically applies the trailer’s hydraulic brakes.
Trailer manufacturers warn trailerboaters with surge-brake couplers not to shift into a lower gear, but to use the tow vehicle’s engine as a brake constantly rather than intermittently. Each downshift may activate the brakes, overheating them and putting them out of commission. It is better to approach a hill slowly, then brake repeatedly while heading down the hill, giving the brakes time to cool between applications.
Surge-brake couplers are now designed to tolerate backing up without the need to deactivate them unless you are backing up a gradient or steep hill. Most states require that the brakes be equipped with a “breakaway” connection that activates the surge brakes if the trailer parts company with the tow vehicle.
Boaters are also warned to avoid getting the brakes wet whenever possible and, if they do get wet, to allow them to dry before starting out on the road. Test the brakes before each trip and after greasing the trailer wheels; inspect the brake linings regularly and replace them when worn.
Winches
A winch is needed to help ensure the orderly launching of the boat and easier effective retrieval; see Figure 7-31. While a single-speed manual winch will work fine for small boats up to about 1,000 pounds, most trailers should be equipped with a two-speed manual winch. This allows you to pull the boat out of the water quickly during the initial stages of retrieval, while the boat still has some buoyancy. The increased pulling power of the lower speed is then available when the boat has cleared the water and the winch is pulling its entire weight.
Figure 7-31 Winches (arrow) are used to gain added pull when loading a boat back onto its trailer. Both single- and two-speed models are available; the latter is preferable for all but the lightest of boats.
Electric winches are also available, making recovery of the boat a matter of hooking up and flipping a switch; see Figure 7-32. Powerful electric models (expensive) are especially desirable for heavy boats that are often launched under less-than-ideal conditions, for example, on very steep ramps.
Whether manual or electric, the winch must be mounted so that the winch line runs level with the boat’s bow-eye. It should have an unimpeded run aft and, during recovery, should bring the bow snug against the bow-stop roller. A manual winch needs to be cleaned and greased regularly, while an electric winch should be maintained according to the manufacturer’s specifications.
Figure 7-32 An electric trailer winch is especially desirable for loading heavier boats, particularly in less-than-perfect conditions.
Tie-Downs
Do not depend on the bow-winch cable to hold the boat onto the trailer or the bow down into its chock. There should be an additional TIE-DOWN of a lashing and turnbuckle. Moving aft, there should be straps of webbing across the hull to hold it firmly in place against the supports of the trailer and to prevent any bouncing up and down on the trailer when on rough roads. There should be additional lashings at each side of the transom; see Figure 7-33. If a trailer as purchased does not have these fittings, they should be added before any extensive trip is made.
Figure 7-33 When being transported, a boat must be held firmly on the trailer so that it cannot shift or bounce on the bed. In storage, at rest, tie-downs should be slacked off a bit to reduce any distorting strains on the hull.
Electrical System
A trailer’s electrical system powers its lights—tail, stop, turn signal, marker, and license plate—and in many cases, a braking system. Good-quality components and careful installation are essential for safety and long trouble-free operation. Wires should be protected from mechanical abrasion, road splash, and other physical damage. It is important that there is a ground wire as part of the electrical system between the trailer and the towing vehicle; the coupler and hitch ball do not provide an adequate “return path” for electrical current. Connectors should be heavy-duty and waterproof.
All states require trailers to be equipped with signal, safety, and stop lights operated by the driver. State regulations vary, but generally trailers less than 6 feet 8 inches (2 m) wide need red reflector lights at the back combining stop, tail, and signal lights, along with a white licenseplate light. Also required are yellow marker lights on each side of the frame, just ahead of the wheels. Trailers wider than 6 feet 8 inches must add a group of three red identification lights in the middle of the back cross-frame as well as an amber clearance light mounted on the front of each fender. It is often recommended that rear lights be mounted high—usually on a bar across the boat’s transom—but in some jurisdictions this may not be acceptable.
While many trailers being built today are equipped with fully waterproof lights, many still have lights that are simply “submersible.” That means the lights can be submerged in water and will drain on their own. Such lights, however, must be disconnected from the automobile—their power source—before boatlaunching time. Even with waterproof lights, disconnecting is always a good idea in order to rule out the possibility of any leaks or shorts in the wiring that could blow bulbs or fuses.
The standard trailer wiring harness, best installed by professionals but easy to repair in a pinch, has a four-prong connector with the green wire going to the right turn signal, yellow to the left, brown to taillights, rear markers, and rear side lights, and white to ground. That means left gets a combination of yellow and brown wires, while right gets a green and brown combination. Seven-wire harnesses are also available with a blue wire for trailer brakes or other extra equipment, red for charging batteries in the trailer or boat, and light green for backup lights.
Trailer builders suggest that you check your wiring for corrosion, bare wires, cracked insulation or other potential shorts at least twice a year; replace and repair any worn or damaged parts and apply waterproof grease to plug contacts and bulb bases to prevent corrosion. Check that all your lights are working before you head out onto the road, day or night.
Trailers are normally sold equipped with several light reflectors. Additional reflectors or reflecting tape may be added as deemed necessary by the owner.
Mast & Other Supports
Sailboat spars can be carried lashed to the boat’s deck, on special brackets built onto sailboat trailers, or in custom-made crossbar brackets mounted on the deck or cabin-top. However, if the spars protrude aft beyond the boat’s transom or outboard motor, the end of the spar must be marked with a red signal flag (and a light at night) for safety.
Trailer Accessories
The items and features discussed above can be considered “essentials”; there are many others that will add to the ease and convenience of using a boat trailer. There are nonskid walkways that can be attached to the frame (see Figure 7-34), allowing you to stay higher and drier during launching and recovery; guide posts, guide rollers, and padded bunk guides that help keep the boat properly aligned on a still-submerged trailer; and even waterproof lights that will light up the frame of a submerged trailer, making it an easier target in the dark.
Figure 7-34 A walkway may be a part of a trailer, or it can be added. Extending along one or both sides of the trailer bed, it can make it easier to guide the boat when it is being launched or retrieved, and it can keep your feet dry, too.
There are a number of accessories available to help line up your hitch ball and trailer couple single-handedly, including “aerials”—with balls and “guides” that lead the coupler toward the ball. With practice you should be able to park your hitch very close to the trailer coupler with great regularity.
One accessory, the dolly-style tongue jack, should be standard equipment for trailers. The jack, equipped with a wheel to allow the tongue and entire trailer to be moved by hand, is usually raised and lowered by a handle-operated worm gear; see Figure 7-35. It should have a pivot and pin that allow it to be flipped up out of the way once the trailer is hitched to the tow vehicle. The dolly wheel and the jack allow you to raise the trailer tongue above the level of the hitch ball, back the vehicle into place, then easily maneuver the coupler right into place and drop it effortlessly onto the ball. A great advantage of this method is that it prevents bruised knuckles and fingers.
Figure 7-35 Using a dolly-style tongue jack is like having an extra person helping to move the trailer manually. It swings down to support the tongue, or up for traveling on the road. Some models remain vertical and are cranked up or down.
Regulations & Licensing
All trailers must be registered with state or provincial transport departments and must bear an affixed license plate. As long as the boat and trailer combined do not exceed 8 feet 6 inches (2.6 m) in width, about 75 feet (22.9 m) in length and 13 feet 6 inches (4 m) in height, no additional permits are needed. If you’re hauling a double- or triple-axle trailer, though, you will have to pay more to use toll roads. However, keep in mind that these are general guidelines; for specifics, check with your local authorities.
If you’re planning to haul a rig larger than maximum dimensions, arrange for special permits: Contact state highway authorities in areas you wish to transit. These permits might differ from one state to the other.
Insurance
Know fully the status of your insurance coverage in regard to pulling a trailer with your car. Some automobile policies allow this, others do not, and some provide limitations on hauling a trailer. Check your policy carefully and, if necessary, consult your insurance agent. If an endorsement is needed, don’t delay or neglect to get it, even at the cost of a small additional premium. Be sure you have adequate liability coverage.
TRAILER OPERATION
Safe, trouble-free trailering depends as much on proper preparations as on correct procedures when on the road. Preparations are not complicated or difficult, but even a single item overlooked can make problems.
Loading the Boat for Travel
Store heavy items as low as you can, keeping the center of gravity as low as possible. All sharp objects should be padded and propped in such a way that they will not shift should you have to jam on the brakes in an emergency or inadvertently ride onto a curb. Whether or not the boat is covered by a tarp, any gear left inside (especially if it is light enough to be blown away) should be stored in a locker or below decks. Carefully secure any loose gear.
Also avoid the unnecessary weight of a full fuel tank, and carry empty water containers; you can easily fill up once you near or reach the launch area.
Balance the Trailer Properly
Check the weight at the trailer tongue after loading the boat with everything to be carried in it; if necessary, shift gear and/or axle(s) as needed to achieve proper weight distribution. Tongue weight should be between 7 and 8 percent of GTW. With a small rig, the tongue weight can be determined using a bathroom scale; on heavier rigs, use a shipper’s scale.
Too much weight applied on the tongue pushes down the back of the tow vehicle, forcing it to “squat.” As well as putting undue strain on the vehicle’s suspension, this can take needed weight off the tow vehicle’s front wheels, making the vehicle hard to steer.
Too little weight on the tongue makes the trailer “tippy” and gives it a tendency to pull up on the tow vehicle. That makes the trailer unstable and more likely to swing from side to side or “fishtail.”
The only proper way to balance a trailer is to move the axle(s) until the desired ratio is obtained. In balancing the whole rig, another very important guideline to consider is the gross axle weight rating (GAW), which is the maximum weight an axle is designed to carry, and is closely related to the tires; see Table 7-2. This figure includes the weight of the vehicle plus any load supported by the axle.
Table 7-2 Figures in boldface are the maximum recommended inflation-load values for tires of each size at highway speeds. Axle loads are the sum of two tire loads.
It is important never to exceed the GAW. This can be achieved by reading the appropriate figures on each of your tires; they will have a maximum for single wheel and one for dual wheel. It cannot be stressed enough that these loads must never be exceeded per axle. To ensure safety, take your rig either to a transport company scale or the local highway trucker scale and ask them to give you a reading per axle.
Weight-distributing hitches spread the tongue weight among all trailer and vehicle wheels. Such hitches are generally used to handle heavy loads that would otherwise put too much weight in back of the vehicle, but must be approached with some caution. Trailer manufacturers warn that such hitches, if overloaded or improperly installed, can cause malfunctions or impairment in operation of hydraulic surge brakes.
Covering & Securing the Boat
A canvas or synthetic cover, fitted to cover the top of the boat and equipped with a drawstring to pull it tight under the gunwales, will help keep highway grime off the boat. Such a cover, however, must be well secured to stay tied down on the road, and may require a web of extra covering ropes. Once your boat is loaded onto a trailer, with the bunks or rollers all making close contact with the hull, you must ensure that it is well secured before heading out onto the highway. (If a cover is to be used, put it on before fastening the tie-downs.) Most trailers are designed so that the boat can be secured with a safety chain or U-bolt at the bow and two nylon-web tie-downs on the transom. The winch line attached to the boat’s bow-eye should be tight, but you cannot count on it alone to hold the boat.
For a long highway trip, you may wish to secure the boat with additional tie-downs on each side of the boat, near the stern, where the engine—and most of the boat’s weight—is located. These tie-downs must be padded where they contact the boat. They act like sandpaper and can work their way through the gel coat, fiberglass, and anodized surface on aluminum.
Powerboat lower units, outboard or inboard/outboard, are often best trailered and stored in the full-down position; check your owner’s manual for your motor. If this doesn’t allow enough clearance off the road, the engine or drive can be tilted up and a wooden block wedged into the gap to take some of the strain. Also check your motor manual to determine optimum block placement. Remember to remove the blocking before attempting to tilt the motor or sterndrive back down. Special accessories may be available to ensure safe travel of a sterndrive; see Figure 7-36.
A fixed-keel sailboat, with a high center of gravity, will obviously need to be well secured by a network of tie-downs to the sides, front, and back of the trailer. The mast and boom can be set on pads and secured to the boat’s deck, if it is flat enough, or in specially built cross-member frames that hold the mast level, allowing it to be secured above the boat’s superstructure. Such a rig must be lower than the 13 feet 6 inches (4 m) height limit set by most states and provinces.
Figure 7-36 Trailering clips (seen in red above) are often available to protect sterndrive components while on short or long hauls.
Use a Predeparture Checklist
It is an excellent idea to make a checklist, and use it.
Such a list can be typed and then sealed in plastic; thus waterproofed, it can be attached to the trailer tongue where it won’t be overlooked; see Figure 7-37. Make it a habit to run through the checklist in the same sequence each time and you will never overlook any potential problem. See the sidebar “Using a Checklist”.
A Final Check
Just before starting out on the road, make a final rundown of the checklist. Have someone in the car operate the switches for all the lights, depress the brake pedal, and activate the turn signals while you watch. And don’t forget to ask each member of the crew, “Have you forgotten anything?”
Figure 7-37 Begin a trip only after all preparations have been made. Use a checklist to make sure that nothing is left undone. If traveling a long distance, plan on stopping at intervals to check tie-downs, wheel bearings, and all lights on the trailer.
Driving with a Trailer
Driving and steering a vehicle with a 20- to 30-foot articulated extension is neither easy nor intuitive. There will be slower acceleration, passing will be more difficult, and more time and distance will be required for stopping. Although some drivers readily adjust, most need practical advice and practice. Practice in light traffic before taking to the crowded weekend highways. Perhaps the best and simplest advice is to slow everything down. Consider and plan your moves carefully, and remember that you cannot move as quickly in, for example, your van and boat-trailer combination as you would in your two-door coupe.
Safety First
The first rule in driving with a trailer behind is “No passengers in the boat.” This practice is unsafe, and it is illegal in many jurisdictions. Do not even allow pets to ride in the trailer.
Drive as smoothly as possible—no sudden jerks in starting, and well-anticipated, easy stops. Jerks and sudden stops put added loads on the cartrailer connection, the boat itself, and the gear stowed in it. Avoid quick turns and sudden swerves; these can make the rig harder to handle.
Just as soon as you start out—before you leave your own property if possible—test your car’s brakes and those of the trailer, if it is so equipped.
Attach big frame-mounted mirrors if those are needed to see back past the boat and trailer; see Figure 7-38. Watch the trailer in the rearview mirrors as much as possible, and keep an ear out for the development of any unusual noises. If a car passes you with its driver or passengers making hand signals to you, pull off the road as soon as possible and check to see what might be wrong.
Figure 7-38 Many boats are of such size or shape that they obstruct normal rearward vision. A large mirror on the right side of the vehicle, as well as one on the left, overcomes this limitation.
Observe all speed limits; these are sometimes less for cars with trailers, and for good reasons. Don’t tailgate; your stopping distance is increased because of the trailer. When driving at highway speeds, allow more room between yourself and the vehicle in front than you normally would; this gives you plenty of time to slow down if the vehicle in front hits the brakes.
Figure 7-39 Keep in mind that boat tops are designed for cruising speeds on the water, not the rigors of high-speed roadway trailering. Take down any fabric top and side curtains and secure them so that they won’t be damaged.
Use added caution in passing; remember that your overall length is at least twice as much as normal, and your car will have to be well ahead of the passed vehicle before there is room for you to get back into your previous lane. Remember, too, that it will take longer for you to accelerate to passing speed. Keep in the proper lane; on multi-lane highways, this will normally be the right-hand lane. If there is only one lane in each direction, and traffic begins to pile up behind you, it is courteous and a contribution to safety to pull off the road (where you can safely do so), and let the faster traffic get past you. On multilane roads, signal well before you need to turn, and be sure that drivers in the other lane—who may be moving faster—have slowed down and are expecting your move. Even though you are already keeping a sharp lookout on the rearview mirrors, you will want to watch even more closely when changing lanes.
When turning left at an intersection, the boat will tend to follow the path of the tow vehicle, so you’ll have lots of room to make a smooth arcing turn. When turning right into a right-hand lane, you may need to swing a bit wide into the lefthand lane in order to keep the trailer clear of the right-side curb or the roadside margin—it can be embarrassing to bump the trailer tires up over the curb when turning a street intersection. With a turn in any direction, do not cut too closely; at worst, you could jackknife the tow vehicle into the boat and trailer.
Be wary of parking lots or driveways that don’t give you enough space to maneuver.
Using a Checklist
Check the Boat
• Make sure that the outboard or sterndrive has adequate clearance from the road. As discussed previously, check with the manufacturer for proper transport position: You may have to tilt the motor up as far as possible, and lock or tie it in order to relieve tilt mechanism strain.
• Check that all container lids and caps are secure—from fuel, water, and holding tank deck plates to two-stroke oil can caps. Protect loose containers from possible puncture. Should a spill occur, it should be restricted to the immediate area.
• Ensure that the battery is secure in its box and that the box is lashed down firmly.
• Check that the towing eye is secure and free of play.
• Remove all loose gear (antennas, flags, lines, cushions, etc.) from the deck and cockpit; store these items below.
• Take down any fabric top and side curtains; secure them against the winds of highway speeds.
• For safety during transport, remove a fire extinguisher from the boat and put it in the towing vehicle. This is especially recommended if the boat is covered, as a stray cigarette butt from a passing car could land on the cover and start a fire. (Don’t forget to return the extinguisher to the boat before launching!)
Check the Trailer
• Ensure proper coupler function; a dab of oil or grease goes a long way in preventing rusting. Check the locking mechanism and have a security pin in place. A padlock can replace that pin to prevent theft.
• Check for proper tire pressure, including the spare tire. Grease wheels, using a grease gun if the trailer is equipped with bearing fittings. Check the sidewalls for cracks—if any are present, change the tires. Check the tightness of wheel lugs.
• Check rollers and bunks, and adjust for proper support of the boat.
• If the winch handle is removable, place it in the back of the car. If it is permanently mounted, check to see that the mounting nut is secure. Check the cable or strap in the winch drum—if frayed, it is unsafe. Make sure that the locking lever has a positive engagement; lubricate the mechanism.
• Check the wiring harness for either bare wires or nicks, and repair as necessary.
Check the Towing Vehicle
• Adjust tire pressure to manufacturer’s recommendations. Check the spare tire at the same time.
• Check that your rearview mirrors on both sides are set properly for the best view of the boat and vehicles to the rear.
• Check hitch installation and tightness of the ball mount.
• Check engine and transmission oil, and as well as radiator coolant. (Remember, these fluids will need to be working harder to accommodate the extra load).
• Check that all necessary tools and spare parts are stowed in the vehicle’s trunk compartment.
Tie Everything Down
• Check your tie-downs; one nick in a strap or cable will greatly reduce its load rating.
• You need to take precautions against the boat shifting forward if you need to jam on the brakes. The boat should be secure against the bow chock on the trailer. Should there be a possibility that the bow of the boat may ride up the bow chock, add one or two other tie-downs from the eye to a strong point on the trailer.
• If you decide on extra side tiedowns, it is important that you prepare in three ways: First, use a piece of carpeting or custom sleeve fitted over the tie-downs to protect the boat against gel-coat damage.
Second, avoid routing the straps over anything, such as a cleat, windshield, cushions, the plastic hatch cover, or a railing. Use a ratchet mechanism on the tie-down to tighten it, but don’t overtighten. Remember that the tension that can be generated by a ratchet often equals the weight of the boat and can permanently damage any part of it.
Third, do your best to position the ratchet mechanism on the driver’s side of the road for ease of checking through his mirror. This way, if a tie-down goes slack, the driver will be able to spot it.
• Avoid positioning a tie-down ratchet against or close to any part of the boat. The vibration generated by the wind pressure will cause knocking on the hull or part of the boat. This can result in a pitted patch of gel coat or aluminum. Surround the ratchet device with padding if it is near the boat.
• Always secure the loose end of a tiedown securely; if left loose it will fly in the wind and fray to shreds.
• Make sure that all tie-downs are tight enough to prevent the boat from bouncing on the trailer, but not so tight as to distort the hull. The boat should travel with the trailer as one, with the trailer’s suspension absorbing the shocks of the road.
Cover the Boat
Consider the following points when you are covering your boat for on-the-ground travel:
• Be sure the cover is snug and well tied. If it has a chance to flap in the wind, it will destroy itself. Dust, dirt, and rain must not be able to get under it.
• If you travel on dirt roads, cover the winch in order to reduce the possibility of grit and debris getting into the mechanism and damaging it.
Hooking Up
When hooking up your trailer to the tow vehicle, use the following checklist:
• Coat the hitch ball with a light coat of grease in order to reduce friction.
• After joining the coupler to the hitch ball, always make sure the coupler is tightened properly and locked according to its design; when in doubt, refer to the manufacturer’s instructions.
• Connect the safety chains immediately, so they won’t be forgotten. If they have an “S” hook, make sure that the open end of the hook goes up through and not down through; it will prevent it from bouncing off. A shackle is better. Cross your chains properly.
• Raise the tongue jack to its “on the road” position.
• If you have a weight-distributing hitch, be sure to set up the spring bars and adjust them so that the bars will level both the trailer and the tow vehicle. The tow vehicle should never squat.
• Systematically check that all lights on the trailer and tow vehicle, including the parking lights, turn signals, emergency flasher, brake lights, and license plate lights, are in good working order.
• Finally, before leaving, make sure that you are carrying all necessary documentation, including your car, trailer, and boat registrations and proof of insurance, as well as any necessary road permits.
Stop & Check
On long highway trips at relatively high speeds, it is important to stop occasionally and see how the rig is traveling; see Figure 7-37.
You might stop after the first 1 or 2 miles (2-3 km), then again after about 50 miles (80 km), and then every 100 miles (160 km). The initial check is made soon after departure so that any small problem can be detected and corrected before it becomes a major difficulty. Make each inspection a thorough one. Stopping intervals must, of course, be adjusted to the availability of suitable locations.
Inspection Procedure Follow a regular procedure on each check to make sure that nothing is overlooked. Check the hitch for tightness and the safety chains for the right amount of slackness. Check tires visually. (There is a normal amount of pressure build-up, so don’t bleed off air in the belief that it is excess.) Feel all wheel bearings; warmth is acceptable, but if they are too hot to touch, you have a problem. Let them cool off and then drive as slowly as possible to a service station for disassembly and inspection. Be sure to check the cover and all tie-downs; take a look inside the boat at the stowed gear. Check all lights, especially stop and turn signals.
Check the car’s tires and lights as part of your inspection. Car cooling systems are pressurized; do not remove the fill cap unless you know that there is trouble, and then do so very carefully (check the vehicle’s operator manual).
When Conditions Are Bad
Driving in rain, fog, or other conditions of reduced visibility is always a bit more hazardous; it is more so if you are pulling a trailer. Consider the added length of the trailer and your less-favorable acceleration and stopping characteristics. High winds, especially crosswinds, present added hazards, and trailer rigs may be banned from some roads and bridges at these times.
Pulling Tandem-Axle Trailers
It has been found that the following characteristics of trailers with two axles can be improved in some cases by not inflating all four tires equally: If you are experiencing any weaving back and forth at highway speeds, try varying the tire pressures by 5 or 10 psi with the front wheels softer than the rear, or vice versa. No specific guidance can be given, except to try various combinations and check for either improved or worsened conditions.
At Your Destination
Upon arrival at your destination, take time to make an inspection similar to those you did en route. Even if tie-downs are to be removed soon, it is useful to know whether or not they have loosened. Likewise, check the hitch and chains. Hot wheel bearings, or even warm ones, should be allowed to cool before launching. If bearings are really hot, it indicates a possible lubrication problem that could cause bearing seizure and must be corrected before starting home.
Maneuvering a Trailer while Backing
The guidelines below are intended to help hone your skills in negotiating a trailer. Along with practice, these will help you anticipate how trailer and vehicle will behave, and to take the necessary actions required for safety.
Driving a trailer backward is trickier than going forward, and takes even more practice. If you’re just starting out, try to find a large deserted parking lot—an office or mall parking lot on Sunday, for example—where you can practice backing in peace, without hazardous obstacles or curious onlookers. That way, you’ll have plenty of confidence when you first pull up to a launching ramp. Remember that in backing up, the vehicle is pushing rather than pulling the trailer. That means, if you want the trailer to back straight, you have to keep the tow vehicle running exactly straight and aligned with it; see Figure 7-40.
• Turning the steering wheel right will turn the back of the tow vehicle right and the back of the trailer left. Moreover, if you keep going, the rig will jackknife.
• When you want the boat to keep backing up to the left, you have to follow the trailer and swing the car around in an arc behind it, which means steering back in the opposite direction.
• Turning the steering wheel left swings the back of the tow vehicle left and moves the trailer sharply to the right.
• When you want to keep moving the trailer to the right without jackknifing, you have to swing the steering wheel back to the right, bringing the tow vehicle roughly in a line with the arc of the trailer.
• The trick with backing up is to maneuver the trailer into the direction in which you want to move it, then follow it, driving either in a wide arc or straight back.
• When moving straight back, use a series of shallow S-shaped turns for correction, to keep the rig moving straight.
When positioning at a ramp, remember that the trailer always backs in the direction opposite to that of the car. As you approach in reverse, swing close to the ramp.
Then cut the car wheels toward the right. As the car swings slightly to the left, the trailer angles toward the ramp.
Cut the car wheels to the left and back slowly into the ramp as the trailer moves to the right.
Finally, straighten the car wheels to follow the trailer as it backs straight down the ramp.
Figure 7-40 Backing a trailer to a boat ramp requires basic knowledge of how the car and trailer interact and much practice.
Land Storage
Because most trailerable boats are stored on land between uses and during the off-season, such boats usually spend more time on a trailer bed than in the water. In addition to keeping both the trailer and boat in good repair, there are other guidelines for safe and careful storage of both, which are covered below.
• Protect Against Theft and Damage You can create at least partial protection against the theft of your boat and its trailer by installing a special fitting that is secured to the trailer coupling with a keyed lock; see Figure 7-41. Remember, if they can’t “hitch up,” they can’t haul it away.
Figure 7-41 Locks for trailers parked without their towing vehicle can be either of the specialized type shown here or of the padlock style.
When the car is not pulling the trailer, cover the hitch ball with a proper ball cover or an old, split-open tennis ball. This will prevent any grease on the ball from rubbing off on clothing and will provide some protection against rust. Some owners unbolt the ball from the hitch and store it in the trunk or in another protected spot (additional theft protection). With a receiver type of hitch, the shank can be removed and stored.
If your boat will be stored outside for an extended period of time, it is wise to remove the battery, electrical components, and even the motor—if possible—and store these items indoors for greater protection against both theft and corrosion.
• Keep Water Out Rainwater in the boat is undesirable for many reasons—mainly because water collection can rapidly increase weight on the trailer, often beyond its capacity. A cover is desirable, and should be supported so that pockets of rainwater cannot form, stretching the fabric and breaking through it. Cross-supports under the cover and frequent fastening points around the edge will keep the cover sag-free; allow some give in the cover if the fabric is subject to shrinking when wet.
• Drain Accumulating Water Whether your boat is protected with a cover or not, the best way to get rid of accumulated water is to raise the tongue of the trailer, allowing water to run aft and out the drain hole. Crank down the parking wheel to raise the tongue, or, alternatively, block it up securely. Make sure the drain is open.
• Ease Strains on the Hull If tie-downs remain taut after over-the-road travel, slack them off or remove them. This will eliminate any strains and possible distortions to the hull that might occur during long storage periods.
• Block Up the Trailer If you do not expect to use your rig for several weeks or months, the trailer frame should be jacked up and placed on blocks in order to reduce the strain on springs and tires. Be sure to use enough blocking to prevent distortion of the trailer frame—which in turn could distort the hull of your boat.
The blocks need be just high enough to take the greater part of the load, but if the trailer wheels are clear of the ground, reduce air pressure in the tires by 10 to 15 psi. Remember that you must have means at hand to restore pressure when the blocks are later taken out for the next trip—do not deflate tires unless you can pump them up again right on the spot before starting off.
• Check the Rig Frequently When your boat is stored and out of regular use, try to set up a schedule of weekly visits by yourself or someone else acting on your behalf. (Checking at the same time each week will help you remember to do so.) On each visit, thoroughly inspect the vessel for peeling paint and any other visible signs of physical deterioration. It is recommended that you take the necessary corrective action immediately, before any minor problems escalate into major ones.
MAINTENANCE, TOOLS & SPARES
Boat trailers are often neglected, and of all their components their wheel bearings are the most critical. Trailers are frequently driven for long times on the highway, often loaded close to their limit. Then after a short, if any, rest period, they are immersed in water during launching and retrieval.
The water seeps into their wheel hubs because of the partial vacuum resulting from the cooling effect of the water on the hot metal. The water emulsifies the grease on the bearings, destroying its lubricating capabilities. If left unattended for any length of time, the water will corrode the bearings’ rollers, resulting in grit in the mixture. Of all stranded trailers, wheel bearing failure is probably the second major problem (after tire trouble).
Keep Tools
Handy When traveling, keep handy the tools you’ll need to deal with minor problems. Include the usual screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches; wire cutters and strippers; hammer and small sledge hammer; tire pressure gauge; a small hydraulic jack; a lug wrench and a large wrench for the spindle nut; a grease gun loaded with axle grease; a good flashlight or electric lantern; a few rags, and last, but not least, some waterless hand cleaner.
Always keep a few spares on hand. Include a complete hub assembly (hub, prepacked wheel bearings, seals, lug nuts, and cotter pins); a spare wheel with a mounted tire; a few feet of wire and some crimp terminals; and a spare of each type of light bulb used on the trailer, plus a few fuses for the electrical system. Roadside flares or reflective warning triangles might come in handy, and perhaps a 12-volt tire pump that connects to a battery.
LAUNCHING & RETRIEVING
Both launching a boat from its trailer and its retrieval (loading) are important skills. In each instance, the steps to be taken must be carefully planned and executed to avoid damage to the boat or motor, as well as injuries to people; see Figure 7-42.
Using a Ramp
Although a ramp is not the best way to get a boat into the water, it is the method used most often. Ramps vary widely in their characteristics—many are surfaced with concrete, while others are hardpacked dirt or sand, sometimes reinforced with wood or steel planking. Some ramps are wide enough for only one launching operation at a time; others can accommodate many rigs simultaneously.
The quality of a ramp depends on its slope, how far it extends into the water, and the condition of its surface. The angle of slope is not critical, but it should be deep enough so the trailer need not be backed down so far into the water that the wheel bearings of the tow vehicle become submerged.
If the slope is too steep, however, you may need an excessive pull to get a loaded trailer up and off the ramp. The ramp must extend far enough into the water that trailers can be backed down without running off the lower end, even in low-water conditions. (Many surfaced ramps develop a sharp drop-off at their lower end; if the trailer has rolled past this point, getting trailer wheels back up over this lip can be a major problem. Look for a warning sign.) A dirt or sand ramp must be firm enough to support the trailer and car or truck wheels. A surfaced ramp must not have a coating of slime that could make footing dangerous and provide inadequate traction for the car.
Figure 7-42 Make prelaunch preparations well away from the ramp so as to help avoid delays and lengthy lines for ramp use. BE SURE THE DRAIN PLUG HAS BEEN INSERTED.
Preparing for Launching
While the trailer’s wheel bearings are cooling down (highly desirable), remove the boat cover, fold it, and store it in the car or boat. Tie-downs can be removed and stored in a safe place, but leave the winch line taut. If the outboard motor or sterndrive lower unit has been in the down position during trailering, tilt it up. If the trailer’s lights will be submerged, disconnect the plug to the vehicle’s electrical system.
If you are launching a sailboat, now is the time to check for overhead power lines, then proceed to hoist the mast. On most trailerable sailboats, hoisting the mast is more easily done on land than when afloat; see Figure 7-43.
Remove or relocate equipment stowed in the boat so that the boat will trim properly when launched. If the fuel or water tanks are empty, or only partially filled, now is a convenient time to top them up, unless there is a fuel pier nearby.
Figure 7-43 Raising the mast of a sailboat can be trouble free if proper preparations are made. Always check first for overhead power lines. This trailer has rear guideposts.
Use Two Lines
Ensure adequate control of the boat by using two lines. Attach both a bow and a stern line; a boat cannot be adequately controlled by a single line. If you are planning to move the boat to a pier or seawall once it is in the water, put in place any fenders that might be needed.
“Preview” the Launching
Study the ramp and surrounding water area for any hazards, such as a slippery or too-short surface; estimate the wind and current effects; see Figure 7-44. If in doubt, as mentioned above, don’t hesitate to ask another skipper who has just launched or retrieved a boat. If you have time, it is useful to watch the launching operations of others, noting any peculiarities of a ramp that is new to you.
If a drain plug is used, make sure it’s inserted. (Occasionally even an experienced skipper launching a boat suffers the embarrassment of water pouring in the drain.) Look about to make sure no item of preparation has been forgotten, then check the plug again.
Figure 7-44 Make sure that you have inspected the ramp before you line up to use it. If you are not familiar with the ramp, take time to talk to someone who has just used it and learn of any peculiarities or problems. There should be no passengers in the vehicle or boat.
Launching the Boat
Line up the car and trailer so that the backing process will be as straight and as short as possible; see Figure 7-45. (If you have a rear-wheel-drive car, it might be advantageous to use a secondary hitch on the front of the vehicle for maneuvers on the ramp.) On a wide ramp, give due regard to others and don’t take up more than your share of space.
Figure 7-45 Line up the car and trailer, then back the rig down the ramp as described in the text.
Back the rig down, preferably to the point where the trailer tires—but not the axle bearings—are in the water. Next, set the parking brake on the towing vehicle; for added safety, block a wheel on each side of the vehicle. Then have one person man the winch controls while one or two other helpers take the bow and stern lines; see Figure 7-46.
Figure 7-46 While a crewmember disconnects the bow hitch cable, one or two others control the boat with lines attached at the bow and stern.
Release the trailer tilt latch, if it is of this type. Tighten the winch brake and release the antireverse lock. Do not, under any circumstances, disconnect the winch cable from the boat. At this stage, a craft should slide easily off the trailer, its speed controlled by the winch brake; in some instances, a push or two may be needed to get it started; see Figure 7-47. Be sure that the motor is tilted up so the propeller and skeg will not dig into the bottom as the boat slides down.
Figure 7-47 Make sure that one or two crewmembers have hold of the bow and stern lines before giving the boat a light push to float it off the trailer.
When the boat is floating free of the trailer, unhook the winch line. Move the boat aside and make it fast to a pier, beach it, or otherwise secure it temporarily; see Figure 7-48. Return a tilted trailer bed to a horizontal position, and latch it in place. The winch line may be rewound on the drum if desired, or secured by catching the hook on a rear member of the trailer frame and taking up the slack.
Figure 7-48 Make the boat fast temporarily while parking the vehicle and trailer. In this illustration, the trailer is still in the water, showing how far it needs to enter the water in order to launch the boat.
Remove the blocks from the towing vehicle’s wheels, and drive the vehicle to an authorized parking area—be sure to give consideration to others by clearing the ramp promptly and selecting a parking spot that will neither take up unnecessary space nor block others from using the ramp. If it is possible, hose down with fresh water any parts of the trailer that got wet during a launch into salt water.
Use a padlock on the coupling or safety chain to prevent theft of the trailer. Place the chocks at the wheels of the trailer if it is detached from the car and if the parking area has any slope.
At the boat, lower the outboard motor or sterndrive unit to its operating position, and connect the fuel line if necessary. Complete any preparations needed for getting underway—transferring equipment to the boat from the car, for example. Then load up your crew and clear away from the launching area as rapidly as can be done with safety.
Reloading onto the Trailer
Beach the boat or make it fast to a pier, and get the car and trailer from the parking area. Although disconnecting the fuel line and running the engine until it quits from fuel starvation is good practice for carbureted outboards that run on a gas/oil premix, it may not be correct for oil-injected or fuel-injected motors. Check your owner’s manual for the correct procedure.
Back the trailer to the water’s edge; make sure that the electrical plug at the vehicle is disconnected. Set the towing vehicle’s brakes and block the wheels. If the trailer bed tilts, release the latch and push the frame into the “up” position. Then tilt up the boat’s motor or sterndrive unit and work the boat into position to move onto the first rollers, with the keel of the boat in line with the trailer.
As with launching, both a stern and bow line help in boat maneuvering during reloading. It may be possible for one of the crew to wade into the water to guide the boat into position. (You can keep your feet dry by using a walkway installed on the trailer frame; refer to Figure 7-34.) Run out enough winch cable to engage the hook in the boat’s stem eye; be careful to watch out for kinks in the cable, and remember to wear gloves when handling a steel wire.
Crank in the winch line and the boat should come onto the trailer bed; a tilted frame will come down to the horizontal position by itself when the boat moves up it; see Figure 7-49. Often a winch has a higher-speed mode that is useful to get the boat started onto the trailer, and a more-powerful mode when the pull gets more difficult.
Do not allow anyone to be in line with the winch cable. A cable under load may snap like a rubber band when it breaks, and can throw a hook or fitting great distances; so keep clear.
When the boat is fully onto the trailer, latch down the tilt mechanism (if it is of this type), remove the wheel blocks, and move the rig clear from the ramp so others can use it. It is always desirable to hose off the boat with fresh water, but this is especially necessary if it was used in salt water; this should be done as soon as possible after reloading—do not wait until you get home. In some states hosing is required after boating in fresh waters where invasive water plants and/or zebra mussels exist.
Figure 7-49 Except for dealing with the mast, launching and retrieving a sailboat are identical to the processes for a powerboat. Always be sure to check carefully for any overhead power lines, and use extreme care if there are any nearby.
Launching & Retrieving by Crane
The use of a crane or traveling lift with padded slings is the launching method that is probably the easiest on the boat. When it is exercised with care, this method of launching minimizes strains on the hull; see Figure 7-50.
Although the slings are usually provided by the crane operator, check to make sure that these are of adequate strength before entrusting your boat to them. You also should be familiar with the proper placement of slings so as to ensure a safe balance for your boat—your dealer should be able to provide you with this information.
While the boat is in the slings, use both bow and stern lines to control any swinging motion during transit from the trailer to the water, or vice versa.
Figure 7-50 Where a ramp is not available, a crane or traveling lift can be used to lift a boat from its trailer and lower it into the water.
Dry Storage Racks
As waterfront property has become increasingly expensive and marinas have been turned into condos and other real-estate developments, slip space has become scarcer and more costly. So have parking areas and open land in and around marinas, where boat owners in the past often left their boats on trailers. To provide room for more boats, particularly smaller boats, many marinas have built what are essentially large sheds filled with storage racks in which forklift trucks can deposit boats in stacks that are four or more boats high. When you’re done boating, you leave your boat in a specified area; generally, a crane will lift it out of the water and deposit it on the forklift truck, which takes it to your assigned rack in the shed. In some marinas the forklift will take the boat directly from the water. In either case, prepare your boat as described above in the trailering section. Most marinas prohibit owners from working on or accessing boats in dry storage racks.
Clean Your Boat & Trailer
Whether you use a ramp or a crane, fresh water or salt, it is essential that you clean your boat and trailer before you leave the area where the craft was removed from the water. The waters of the United States and Canada are seriously infested with “invasive nuisance” species of aquatic weeds and animals. The most widely publicized of these is probably the zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) now spreading from the Great Lakes into the waters of many states and provinces, but there are many others—a recent appearance of milfoil and giant salvina (Salvinia molesta), invasive aquatic plants, is causing major environmental damage in many areas. These infestations are of major concern, as they crowd out desirable native plants and fishes and cause damage to vessels and shore installations.
In some states special stickers are required on all motorboats and PWCs (either owned by a resident or nonresident) operating in freshwater lakes and rivers. Boaters who do not thoroughly wash down their craft and trailers are guilty of spreading undesired and harmful plants, shellfish, and even fish. All mud and plants must be removed before starting out on the road.
SMALL BOAT HANDLING
Although boat handling of outboard and sterndrive craft is covered in Chapters 6 and 7, there are some details that specifically relate to lighter, trailerable craft. We will deal with those concerns in this section.
Although the vast majority of trailerable boats have wheel steering, some are equipped with outboard motors with tiller handles. The operator sits in the stern of the boat and pushes the tiller handle away from the direction of the intended turn. On the smallest outboards, reverse is achieved by rotating the engine 180°.
The smaller the boat in relation to the size of the engine, the more you will feel the effect of the engine’s torque. In proportion to the engine’s force, the boat will tend to heel to one side as a reaction to the powerful spin of the propeller. A propeller with large pitch will tend to “walk” sideways as it achieves higher speeds in the water.
Trim
Remember that the number of seats in a boat is not an indication of the number of persons that it can carry safely. Overloading is a major cause of boating accidents, so stay within the true limits of your craft (check the official capacity plate). The factors affecting trim become increasingly critical as the load approaches the boat’s capacity, and also as boat size decreases.
Before getting underway, trim your boat as well as possible, as shown in Figure 7-51. In smaller craft it is dangerous for passengers to change places or to move about while the boat is moving along briskly. If such movement becomes essential, slow or stop the boat first. (In rough water remember to maintain sufficient momentum to retain steerage control, and to keep the boat headed into wind and waves.) Anyone moving must keep low and near the boat’s centerline.
Proper lateral trim is important for safety.
If the load is concentrated to port, the boat might capsize in a tight left turn or if hit by a wave or wake.
Overload forward causes the boat to “plow.” Running with the bow down may allow the boat to dig into an oncoming wave.
Overload aft causes the boat to “squat,” placing the transom dangerously low to the water.
Distribute passengers and gear so the boat is level; fore-and-aft trim is important for best performance and comfort.
Figure 7-51 The proper trim of a small boat makes for both safer and more efficient operation.
Stability
Since outboard-powered craft are often operated at relatively high speeds, their stability becomes an important safety issue. Some hulls will run straight ahead quite steadily, but have a tendency to heel excessively, or even flip over, when turned sharply.
The underwater shape of the hull is a key factor in stability. Today, most outboard and sterndrive boats are of deep-V or modified-V form, or of the multiple-hull catamaran or cathedral type; refer to Chapter 1, Figure 1-12. These designs provide a higher degree of stability in normal operation; however, they resist turning—attempts to make a sharp turn at high speed may cause broaching (uncontrolled turning broadside to the seas or to the wind). This is also the case with some older, flat-bottom hull forms that have keels to provide directional stability.
Conversely, a flat-bottom boat without a keel has little directional stability and may skid out sideways when a turn is attempted at excessive speed. Initially the boat will point off in the new direction but will continue to travel along what is essentially its old track.
In any case, the faster a boat goes, the more important it is to reduce speed to a safe level before starting a turn; never turn more sharply than necessary Normal operation seldom requires a sudden, sharp, high-speed turn.
Reversing
Most outboard motors have a reverse gear that enables them to be backed down. Unless restrained, an outboard motor has the tendency to tilt itself up and out of the water when thrust is reversed. On many models, there is a manually operated reverse lock that must be latched into place to keep the motor down while engaged in backing maneuvers. For normal running, however, it is important that this latch be released so that the lower unit will be free to tilt up if it strikes an underwater obstruction.
INFLATABLE BOATS
Inflatable boats are constructed of air-filled tubes, with flexible or rigid floors. The transoms and seats are built of wood, metal, or fiberglass.
These highly stable platforms have found widespread acceptance as dinghies for larger craft, dive boats, workboats, and all-around recreational boating. The material used to build the tubes and other parts of most inflatables is high-strength woven polyester or nylon fabric that is impregnated with flexible but durable “plastomer” coatings. The inside layers of some inflatables are made of neoprene—a stretchy but airtight rubberlike material; see Figure 7-52.
Inflatables are stable, unsinkable when inflated, and capable of carrying significant weight; many of them also have the advantage of collapsing into small, portable packages. Although most models are difficult to row, inflatables are easily driven by outboard motors. Because they are made of fabric that is subject to abrasion and wear, care should be taken during use and while being inflated and deflated.
Figure 7-52 An inflatable boat combines lightness of construction with a safe, wide platform and soft contours. Many have a rigid hull beneath the side tubes for better speed and control. Use care when sitting on side tubes, especially if the boat has sufficient power to operate on plane.
Types
The traditional inflatable dinghy or tender was built with plywood floors and inflatable tube seats and was controlled by a tiller-steered outboard. The flat-bottom inflatable hull has given way to a wide variety of hull shapes, including inflated V-hulls and V-hulls with inflated “sponsons.” Some very rigid inflatable floors are also available.
Rigid-hull inflatable boats (RIBs or RHIBs) combine the stability and sea-keeping ability of regular inflatables with the speed and handling capability of regular V-hulls. Because of the hulls’ added strength and stiffness, they can be larger and carry more powerful motors. Some are now available with more sophisticated accommodations, such as remote-control consoles with rigid seats and even “radar-arch” bars for mounting radio antennas and lights; storage areas can also be added. Most RIBs are, in fact, small fiberglass V hull craft surrounded by inflatable tubes. Strength can be built into the boat, and the stability for which inflatables are known is available when needed—while the boat is operating at slow speeds or at rest—but the V-hull comes into play when the boat is on plane and running at speed. While traditional inflatables are usually deflated and disassembled for road travel, rigid inflatables are normally left inflated and carried on a bunk style trailer.
Inflatables need lower horsepower to perform the same work as heavier types of boats; overpowering an inflatable adversely affects maneuverability and balance.
Towing
Inflatables being towed behind larger boats should have all loose equipment removed. The tow should be from “tow” rings—usually installed by the manufacturer—mounted on the forward underside of the inflatable’s bow area. From these tow rings, a bridle should be created, centered forward of the inflatable’s bow.
A popular position for towing inflatables with sailboats and slower powerboats is snugged up against the transom of the tow vessel. With faster powerboats, a dinghy is normally towed astern on a longer line; to reduce strain on the line, it should ride on the forward side of a stern wave. Note that using three-strand nylon lines for towlines (or trailer tie-downs) is not recommended. This type of line, with exposure to sun and salt, can be quite abrasive, and constant rubbing against the inflatable can cause damage. Braided lines of polyester or polypropylene are the best choice, and the latter will float; a few floats of the type often used in swimming pools can be strung along the towline at intervals to aid in preventing the line from becoming fouled in propellers and rudders.
Maintenance
Most manufacturers of inflatable boats recommend mild detergent cleaners. Mild abrasive scrubbers will help remove serious grime. Minor cuts and abrasions can be repaired using sandpaper, cleaner, glue, and a patch. Extensive repairs should be done by a professional.
Like other boats, inflatables will grow barnacles or become coated with scum if left in the water unprotected. A special anti-fouling paint is available for them. A properly inflated RIB will be rigid in the water and will not sag or flex with the waves; the operating pressure of a properly inflated boat varies among manufacturers.
Valves should be cleaned once or twice a year, or monthly if the boat is regularly inflated and deflated. Valve cleaning should be done with mild soapy water and an old toothbrush. Check the O-rings; if cracked or pitted, they permit air leakage and should be replaced. Do not use petroleum jelly, silicones, or petroleum distillates on the valves.
JET-DRIVE BOATS
Various boats, ranging from planing to displacement-type hulls and from small personal watercraft (PWCs) to large yachts, use water jet propulsion; see Figure 7-53. The major features of a jet boat include the following:
• Instant response in accelerating, stopping, or making any sort of turn.
• Low drag because of the lack of appendages.
• Shallow draft.
• Safety around people in the water.
• Absence of hull vibration or torque effects, which eliminates high-speed cavitation.
The principle of operation is borrowed from aircraft jet propulsion. Rather than having a traditional propeller immersed below the hull, the water jet system draws water through an intake duct and debris screen fitted flush to the bottom of the hull. A high-performance axial flow impeller pumps high volumes of water, discharging it via a nozzle projecting through a sealed transom opening. This results in a powerful forward thrust. Steering is normally accomplished by swiveling the jet stream from side to side; occasionally, there will be a pivoting deflector blade in the jet stream. There are some models of outboard motors that have a jet-drive lower unit rather than a conventional propeller drive.
Jet-drive craft have no steering capability if there is no jet discharging. Reverse is achieved by lowering a deflector, or “clam shell,” to divert the flow of water forward. If done suddenly on a small boat, it stops the boat in its own length—a maneuver that should not be done at high speed because of possible injuries to the operator and any passengers, and/or somersault of the light craft. Because there is no gearbox, shifting from forward to reverse at any speed does not overload the engine—only the direction of the external water stream is altered in stopping or reversing. The pivot point of a light displacement jet boat can be as little as two feet forward of the jet nozzle. Without rudder or lower unit drag, sharp turns can be made; it is possible to reverse course in little more than the boat’s length. Getting into a tight space at a pier can be accomplished by using short bursts of power in forward and reverse.
Jet-drive boats with the best handling characteristics are those designed specifically for this means of propulsion. Their hulls are designed to ensure that the aerated water from the bow wave does not enter the jet, thus avoiding the creation of slip and minimizing power loss.
Figure 7-53 Jet drives are most often seen on personal watercraft (PWCs), but they are also used on small “jet boats” where the operator and passengers are inside a hull, and occasionally on large fast yachts.
Personal Watercraft
A personal watercraft (PWC) is a common introduction to boating for young people. Because such craft use the same waters as other powerboats, it is important to be informed about their use and how to avoid collision.
A personal watercraft is classified by the U.S. Coast Guard as a “Class A Inboard Boat” and is subject to the same laws and requirements as conventional boats. Under the Navigation Rules, there is no difference between operating a PWC and any other craft. You are operating a highly maneuverable boat, but you have the same privileges and obligations as the operator of any other vessel. A proper lookout all around is constantly required. With no navigation lights installed, a PWC may not be used after sunset.
Remember that both the owner and the skipper are responsible for the safety of everyone on board, as well as any damage that may occur from the PWC’s wake—an important consideration when lending or borrowing such a craft. Manufacturers recommend that no privately owned PWC be operated by anyone below the age of 14 or rented to anyone below the age of 16. There may also be state or local age restrictions.
PERSONAL WATERCRAFT OPERATION: DOS & DON’TS
• Do know how to swim, but always wear a PFD. Always attach the throttle safety lanyard to your vest before starting the engine.
• Do go slowly until you are in a clear area.
• Do have available an up-to-date chart of the waters where you are intending to go boating.
• Do check for, and obey, “no wake” signs.
• Do look behind you for traffic as you prepare for each turn.
• Do keep a substantial distance between your watercraft and every other person or craft in or on the water.
• Do avoid ship channels whenever possible; if absolutely necessary, cross them vigilantly and quickly.
• Do operate courteously. Showing respect to others will help maintain a high public regard for your sport. Keep in mind that only a few irresponsible operators can lead to restrictive local regulations.
• Do slow down and be extra cautious on your way home. Numerous studies have shown that fatigue caused by the glare, motion, noise, and vibration during a day on the water will reduce your reactions to nearly the same level as if you were legally intoxicated.
• Do not speed in congested areas.
• Do not speed in fog or stormy conditions.
• Do not come too close to another vessel.
• Do not engage in wake-jumping—crossing close astern of larger boats underway.
WATERSKIING
Since every boater is likely to encounter waterskiers at one time or another while underway—or to participate in the sport—a mention of waterskiing is relevant for safety. This brief coverage of the subject is intended to help the boater anticipate dangerous situations and to respond quickly and effectively.
The Boat
Waterskiing doesn’t require a large boat with a high-powered engine. Although tournament and show skiers use very sophisticated equipment, the average skier can use the family boat, whether outboard, inboard, or sterndrive. Although it is possible to ski behind a boat as small as a personal watercraft—and even behind an inflatable with a 20-hp (14.7 kW) engine—the normal length is 14 to 20 feet (4.3 to 6.1 m). The most important factor is the size of the engine: It must be more powerful than the required minimum to pull a skier to a standing position. Otherwise, the waterskiing can overload the motor, reducing its useful lifespan.
When pulling skiers, it is important to maintain constant speed—ideally using a speedometer and/or a tachometer to ensure that the engine won’t exceed its maximum rpm. To achieve maximum efficiency when towing skiers, using a smaller pitch propeller will help to keep the power to its maximum in the ranges of speed used. Top-end speed may be lower, but acceleration will be better. For the best steering capability, the towline for the skier should be fastened to a high point well forward of the transom on a post called a pylon; alternatively, a bridle can be attached at two points through-bolted on the stern. Never tie to one corner only, as this could cause a small boat to upset and greatly hinder maneuverability on larger boats.
Since verbal communication between the skier and the boat’s crew is difficult if not impossible, it is essential that a universally accepted group of signals be used. Using the observer as an intermediate to the driver, the skier is able to communicate his wishes by these gestures, see Figure 7-54.
Safe Waterskiing: Dos & Don’ts
• Do learn good swimming skills. This is important for the skier and for the boat’s crew.
• Do wear a PFD that is secure, durable, and is not too bulky or awkward.
• Do familiarize yourself with safe boating procedures. Falling overboard is often considered part of the fun; be prepared with a flotation jacket or belt.
The Skier
• Do learn about waterskiing from a qualified instructor.
• Do make yourself visible if you fall in waters where traffic exists. Hold a ski halfway up to alert boats nearby.
• Do not put any part of your body through the bridle or place the handle behind your neck or knees. A fall in this position has the potential for serious injury.
• Do insist on having a competent observer in addition to the driver—someone who is appointed to watch the skier at all times and report to the driver of the boat. That observer should be able to physically assist the skier in case of need. Above all, the lookout should remember that objects and other boats present the greatest danger. Be aware that an observer is a legal requirement in most states.
• Do not dry-land at a dock or beach. Any error in judgment could result in an injury.
Figure 7-54 Since verbal communication between the skier and the towing boat crew is difficult, if not impossible, it is essential that hand signals be used. It is helpful if a standardized, universally accepted system of signals is employed. Using an observer as an intermediary to the boat driver, the skier is able to communicate his status or wishes by these gestures.
SAFE OPERATION OF SMALL CRAFT
A carefully matched boat, motor, and propeller, operated in accordance with the law and with courtesy, will go a long way toward eliminating many accidents and worries. But some possibility for trouble always exists; the wise boater should be prepared to act in an emergency. Much of the information listed below is of particular interest to small-boat and personal watercraft operators as well as water-skiers. Refer also to Chapters 11 and 12 for more extensive safety-on-the-water and emergency information.
Common Causes of Accidents Involving Small Craft
• Overloading, overpowering, and improper trim.
• High speed turns, especially in rough water.
• Failure to keep a lookout for obstructions and other boats.
• Going out in bad weather (or not starting for shelter soon enough when weather starts turning bad).
• Standing up in a moving boat.
• Having too much weight too high in the boat, such as people standing up while underway.
• Leaks in the fuel system.
• Going too far offshore.
Safe Operating Procedures
• Allow no one to ride on the bow. A person who slips over the side may be run over by the boat before the skipper can take action.
• Stand clear of hazards. Strong river or tidal currents around large objects, such as moored barges and vessels, can create a hazard for small boats, which can be pulled beneath the surface. Give such situations a wide berth.
• Slowing and stopping. Watch your own stern wave; it could overtake you and swamp your boat.
• Fuel consumption. There is no excuse for running out of fuel. Keep tanks near-full and know the fuel consumption on a per-hour or per-mile basis. Always plan for a reserve of at least one-third of your total capacity.
• Leave word behind. If you are going offshore or for a long run on inland waters, or even just fishing some distance away from home, tell someone ashore what your plans are, giving as much detail as possible (Chapter 11).
• Watch the weather. The smaller the boat, the more vulnerable it is to approaching bad weather. Take early evasive action; head for safe waters while there is ample time. Always keep an eye on the weather.
• Carry distress signals. Even though the size of your craft might not warrant the need to carry emergency equipment and flares during the day, it is nevertheless good practice to carry some in case you are delayed or stranded. Learn the proper emergency procedures.
• Watch for squalls and storms. If you get caught in bad weather, the information included in Chapter 10 is good even for small craft. The basic safety rules apply: Everyone should wear a PFD. Go slowly. Check your weight distribution. If the motor quits, keep the bow to the waves. Don’t let water accumulate in the boat.
• Know what to do if you capsize. Unless your life is threatened, stay with the boat, which is easier to spot than a swimmer alone. All small boats built after July 1973 must carry flotation to keep them upright.
• Know what to do in case of accident. If you are involved in a boating accident, you are required to stop and help if you can without endangering your boat or passengers. You must identify yourself and your boat to any person injured or to the owner of the property damaged. See Chapter 12 for information on reporting accidents and recovery procedures.
The Boat Operator
• Do always look ahead. Plan your speed and turns according to the skier’s ability.
• Do return quickly to a fallen skier.
• Do not drive on any course that could jeopardize the skier’s safety.
Both Skier & Boat Operator
• Do check equipment regularly, especially before skiing; skis with nicks could cut or scrape skin. Make sure ski lines are free of tangles, loops, and knots.
• Do not ski in shallow water—water less than about 6.5 feet (2 m) deep.
• Do not ski at night (established as being from one hour after sunset until sunrise).
• Do not ski near boats, docks, or swimming, scuba diving, sailing, and fishing areas. Also avoid close proximity to the shore, stationary objects, narrow channels and harbors, and busy areas.
• Do not prevent people on shore, or other boaters, from enjoying the peacefulness of open waters and beaches. Noise carries farther over the water than on land, particularly when it is otherwise quiet. Remember that early morning and late afternoon are times when many boaters value quiet most. When waterskiing or operating PWC at high speeds, stay away from anchorages, shoreline areas with homes, campgrounds, and other places where people go for peace and quiet.
KILL SWITCHES
Personal watercraft and outboard engines of low horsepower intended for use on dinghies and other craft that are susceptible to throwing the operator overboard are equipped with a KILL SWITCH that will stop the engine or put it in neutral gear. This is connected to the operator by a short lanyard, which should be attached to the operator’s PFD or clothing. If an engine is not so equipped, it may be possible to add this safety feature.